Chumashan is an extinct and revitalizing family of languages that were spoken on the southern California coast by Native American Chumash people, from the Coastal plains and valleys of San Luis Obispo to Malibu, neighboring inland and Transverse Ranges valleys and canyons east to bordering the San Joaquin Valley, to three adjacent Channel Islands: San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz.
| Chumash | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | southern coastal California |
| Ethnicity | Chumash |
| Extinct | 1965, with the death of Mary Yee |
| Linguistic classification | One of the world's primary language families |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | chs retired |
| Glottolog | chum1262 |
 Pre-contact distribution of Chumashan languages | |
The Chumashan languages may be, along with Yukian and perhaps languages of southern Baja California such as Waikuri, one of the oldest language families established in California, before the arrival of speakers of Penutian, Uto-Aztecan, and perhaps even Hokan languages. Chumashan, Yukian, and southern Baja languages are spoken in areas with long-established populations of a distinct physical type. The population in the core Chumashan area has been stable for the past 10,000 years.[citation needed] However, the attested range of Chumashan is recent (within a couple thousand years). There is internal evidence that Obispeño replaced a Hokan language and that Island Chumash mixed with a language very different from Chumashan; the islands were not in contact with the mainland until the introduction of plank canoes in the first millennium AD.
Although some say the Chumashan languages are now extinct or dormant, language revitalization programs are underway with four of these Chumashan languages. These languages are well-documented in the unpublished fieldnotes of linguist John Peabody Harrington. Especially well documented are Barbareño, Ineseño, and Ventureño. The last native speaker of a Chumashan language was Barbareño speaker Mary Yee, who died in 1965.
Family division
Languages
Six Chumashan languages are attested, all now extinct. However, most of them are in the process of revitalization, with language programs and classes. Contemporary Chumash people now prefer to refer to their languages by native names rather than the older names based on the local missions.
- Chumashan
- Northern Chumash
- Obispeño (also known as Northern Chumash) †
Also known as Tilhini by students of the language, after the name of the major village near which the mission was founded.
- Obispeño (also known as Northern Chumash) †
- Southern Chumash
- Island Chumash (mixed with non-Chumash)
- Island Chumash (also known as Ysleño, Isleño, Cruzeño) †
Was spoken on the three inhabited islands in the Santa Barbara Channel Islands: Santa Rosa, San Miguel, and Santa Cruz.
- Island Chumash (also known as Ysleño, Isleño, Cruzeño) †
- Central Chumash
- Purisimeño †
- Sʰamala (Ineseño) †
Also spelled Samala, spoken by the Santa Ynez Band. Currently being revived. - Šmuwič (Barbareño) †
Also spelled Shmuwich by students of the language and community members. This is the name for the language and the people; it means "coastal." Currently being revived. - Mitsqanaqa'n (Ventureño) †
Students of the language and community members renamed the language after the name of a major village near which the mission was founded.
- Island Chumash (mixed with non-Chumash)
- Northern Chumash
Obispeño was the most divergent Chumashan language. The Central Chumash languages include Purisimeño, Ineseño, Barbareño and Ventureño. There was a dialect continuum across this area, but the form of the language spoken in the vicinity of each mission was distinct enough to qualify as a different language.
There is very little documentation of Purisimeño. Ineseño, Barbareño and Ventureño each had several dialects, although documentation usually focused on just one. Island Chumash had different dialects on Santa Cruz Island and Santa Rosa Island, but all speakers were relocated to the mainland in the early 19th century. John Peabody Harrington conducted fieldwork on all the above Chumashan languages, but obtained the least data on Island Chumash, Purisimeño, and Obispeño. There is no linguistic data on Cuyama, though ethnographic data suggests that it was likely Chumash (Interior Chumash).
Post-contact
The languages are named after the local Franciscan Spanish missions in California where Chumashan speakers were relocated and aggregated between the 1770s and 1830s:
- Obispeño—Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa
- Purisimeño—Mission La Purísima Concepción
- Ineseño—Mission Santa Inés
- Barbareño—Mission Santa Barbara
- Ventureño—Mission San Buenaventura
Genetic relations
Roland Dixon and Alfred L. Kroeber suggested that the Chumashan languages might be related to the neighboring Salinan in a Iskoman grouping.Edward Sapir accepted this speculation and included Iskoman in his classification of Hokan. More recently it has been noted that Salinan and Chumashan shared only one word, which the Chumashan languages probably borrowed from Salinan (the word for 'white clam shell', which was used as currency). As a result, the inclusion of Chumashan into Hokan is now disfavored by most specialists, and the consensus is that Chumashan has no identified linguistic relatives.
Characteristics
The Chumashan languages are well known for their consonant harmony (regressive sibilant harmony). Mithun presents a scholarly synopsis of Chumashan linguistic structures.
Vowels
The Central Chumash languages all have a symmetrical six-vowel system. The distinctive high central vowel is written various ways, including <ɨ> "barred I," <ə> "schwa" and <ï> "I umlaut." Contemporary users of the languages favor /ɨ/ or /ə/.
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | ɨ/ə | u |
| Low | e | a | o |
Striking features of this system include
- Low-vowel harmony within morphemes: Within a single morpheme, adjacent low vowels match: they are both or all front /e/, central /a/ or back /o/. Pan-Central examples:
- expeč "to sing" — I/B/V
- ʼosos "heel" — I/B/V
- ʼasas "chin" — I/B/V
- Low-vowel harmony as a process: Many prefixes include a low vowel which shows up as /a/ when the vowel of the following syllable is high. When the vowel of the following syllable is low, the vowel of the prefix assimilates to (or "harmonizes" with) the front-central-back quality of the following vowel. The verb prefix kal- "of cutting" illustrates this process in the following Barbareño examples, where the /l/ may drop out:
- kamasix "to cut into three pieces" — kal- + masix "three"
- keseqen "to cut out" — kal- + seqen "to remove"
- qoloq " to make or bore a hole, cut a hole in — kal- + loq "to be perforated"
- katun "to cut into two pieces" — kal- + =tun "of two, being two"
Consonants
The Central Chumash languages have a complex inventory of consonants. All of the consonants except /h/ can be glottalized; all of the consonants except /h/, /x/ and the liquids can be aspirated.
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2015) |
Proto-language
| Proto-Chumash | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Chumashan languages |
Proto-Chumash reconstructions by Klar (1977):
no. gloss Proto-Chumash Proto-Southern Chumash notes 1 advise, to *si/umun 2 all *yimlaʔ 3 alone *l-ho 4 already *kVla- 5 ant *tkaya’ plus sound symbolism 6 armpit *ti/uq’olo(lo) stem: *q'olo(lo) 7 arrive *ki/um 8 arrow *ya' 9 arroyo *l’VmV 10 ascend *-nVpa 11 ashamed, to be *-nos- 12 ashes *qSa 13 ask, to *-VsqVnV 14 back (body part) *mVtV’ 15 ball *-apapa reduplicated stem 16 bat (animal) *mVkala 17 bathe, to *k-ep’ 18 bear (animal) *qus 19 bee *olo plus sound symbolism 20 begin, to *-nVna’ reduplicated stem? 21 blow, to *aq-(tV)-p-; *-kVt *-wu- 22 boil, to *-wi- 23 bone *Se 24 bow (noun) *aqa 25 break, to *k’oto; *eqe 26 breast *kVtet 27 breathe; breath *kal-haS; *-haS 28 bring, to *kVlhi 29 burn, to *qi/ut 30 cost, to *piw’ 31 carry, to *kum 32 carry on back, to *sVpV 33 cheek *po' 34 chest (body part) *kVwV 35 chia *’epV- 36 canoe *tomolo 37 clitoris *Cele ~ *C’ele 38 cold, to feel *toqom ~ *qotom 39 comb, to *ti/ukikS 40 come, to *yit-i; *VlhVw 41 concerned with, to be *tak 42 cooked *pSel 43 cough, to *oqoqo- reduplicated stem; onomatopoetic 44 cover, to *Vqmay 45 crack, split, to *-eqe 46 cut, to *’iwa plus reduplication 47 dark-colored, to be *Soy 48 day *qSi; *-iSa- 49 deaf *tu’ 50 deep *l-hiy 51 die, to *qSa 52 dirt *uyu 53 drink; thirsty, to be *aq-mihi-l-ha; *o- 54 ear *tu’ 55 earth *šup 56 eat, to *uw 57 eye, face *tVq 58 eyes, face, having to do with *weqe 59 far, to be *mVkV 60 fat *qilhi 61 fight, to *aqi/u 62 fire *ne 63 flower *pey’ 64 flea *-tep (Proto-Central Chumash) 65 fly (insect) *axulpes 66 follow, to *pey 67 food (cf. eat) *uw- *uw- 'eat' plus *-mu (nominalizing suffix) 68 foot *teme’ 69 forget, to *may 70 full from eating, to be *qti’ 71 get up, to *kVta’ 72 gopher snake *pSoSo reduplicated stem 73 grasshopper *ti/uqu root: *-qu 74 gull sp. *miyV 75 hair, fur *SuSV reduplicated stem? 76 hand *pu 77 hang, to *wayan ~ *waya 78 hear, to *taq 79 heel *’ososo reduplicated stem 80 hello (greeting) *haku 81 hole *loq 82 hole, cave, den *Si ~ *SiSV 83 homosexual, to be *’aqi’ 84 jimson weed *mom’oy from *moy 85 knee *pVm’V 86 knife *’iw 87 lie down, to *toy’ ~ *ton’ 88 liver *c-al’a 89 look, to *kuti ~ *kuti’ 90 louse *Seke 91 low tide *qVw 92 many, much *equ 93 meat, body *’Vmin’ 94 moist, to be *so’ 95 money; clam sp. *’ala-qu-Cum ~ *’ana-qu-Cum *Cum is the root 96 mosquito *pewe(we)’ 97 mother-in-law *mVSV 98 mountain lion *tVkem’ 99 mouse *qlo plus reduplication 100 mouth *’Vk 101 name *ti 102 neck *ni’ 103 necklace *el’ 104 nerve *pilhil 105 nest *patV ~ *patV’ 106 new, to be *VmVn 107 now *kipV(’) 108 oak spp. *kuwu(’) 109 one-eyed, to be *ta’ 110 open, to *kal 111 overcast, to be *iqVmay 112 pelican *sew 113 person *ku 114 pet *qo’ 115 pick up, lift, raise *lay 116 prickly pear *qV’ 117 quail *takaka onomatopoetic 118 rabbit/jackrabbit *ma’; *kuni’ 119 rain, to *tuhuy ~ *tuy 120 red *qupe 121 roadrunner *pu’ 122 rub, to *muy 123 salt *tepu(’) ~ *tipu(’) 124 save (rescue), to *apay 125 seed *’VmVn’ 126 skunk *tVqema 127 smoke *tuwo’ 128 snail, sea *q’VmV’ 129 speak, say, to *’ipi(’) 130 split-stick rattle *wanS-aq’a ~ *wacs-aq’a 131 spread open *kek-an 132 squirrel, ground *emet’ ~ *em’et’ 133 steps *tVyV- 134 stick to, to *pey ~ *pey’ 135 sticky, to be *pilhiy 136 stone, rock *qVpV 137 straight *tyiyeme ? 138 swordfish *’eleyewun’ 139 tadpole *qlo ~ *qyo root: 'small creature' (cf. mouse) 140 tail *telheq’ 141 take off, to *qe 142 tears *tinik’ 143 tongue *’elhew’ 144 tooth *Sa 145 urinate, to *Sol’ 146 vomit *paS(V) 147 walk, to - 148 warm self, to *mol 149 water *’o’ 150 whale *paqat(V) 151 wood, tree, stick *pono’ 152 woodpecker *pVlak’a(k’) 153 wrinkled *Sok’ plus reduplication 154 yawn *San plus reduplication 155 yellow jacket *ɨyɨ ~ *ɨyɨ’
See also
- Rock art of the Chumash people
- Burro Flats Painted Cave
- Population of Native California
- Native Americans in the United States
Notes
- Grant 1978
- Golla, Victor. (2011). California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-5202-6667-4
- Dixon and Kroeber 1913
- Sapir 1917
- Klar 1977
- Mithun 1999:390
- Mithun 1999:390-392
- Klar, Kathryn A. 1977. Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar. Doctoral dissertation, University of California at Berkeley.
Bibliography
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Definitions from Wiktionary![image]()
Media from Commons
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913). New Linguistic Families in California. American Anthropologist 15:647-655.
- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
- Klar, Kathryn. (1977). Topics in historical Chumash grammar. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley).
- Kroeber, Alfred Louis (1910). The Chumash and Costanoan languages. Berkeley, The University Press. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
- Grant, Campbell. (1978). Chumash:Introduction. In California Handbook of North American Indians (William C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) Vol. 8 (Robert F. Heizer, Volume Ed.). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution.
- Sapir, Edward. (1917). The Position of Yana in the Hokan Stock. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and ethnology 13:1–34. Berkeley: University of California.
Chumashan is an extinct and revitalizing family of languages that were spoken on the southern California coast by Native American Chumash people from the Coastal plains and valleys of San Luis Obispo to Malibu neighboring inland and Transverse Ranges valleys and canyons east to bordering the San Joaquin Valley to three adjacent Channel Islands San Miguel Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz ChumashGeographic distributionsouthern coastal CaliforniaEthnicityChumashExtinct1965 with the death of Mary YeeLinguistic classificationOne of the world s primary language familiesSubdivisionsNorthern Chumash Obispeno Central Chumash Purisimeno Ineseno Barbareno and Ventureno Island ChumashLanguage codesISO 639 3 a href https iso639 3 sil org code chs class extiw title iso639 3 chs chs a retiredGlottologchum1262Pre contact distribution of Chumashan languages The Chumashan languages may be along with Yukian and perhaps languages of southern Baja California such as Waikuri one of the oldest language families established in California before the arrival of speakers of Penutian Uto Aztecan and perhaps even Hokan languages Chumashan Yukian and southern Baja languages are spoken in areas with long established populations of a distinct physical type The population in the core Chumashan area has been stable for the past 10 000 years citation needed However the attested range of Chumashan is recent within a couple thousand years There is internal evidence that Obispeno replaced a Hokan language and that Island Chumash mixed with a language very different from Chumashan the islands were not in contact with the mainland until the introduction of plank canoes in the first millennium AD Although some say the Chumashan languages are now extinct or dormant language revitalization programs are underway with four of these Chumashan languages These languages are well documented in the unpublished fieldnotes of linguist John Peabody Harrington Especially well documented are Barbareno Ineseno and Ventureno The last native speaker of a Chumashan language was Barbareno speaker Mary Yee who died in 1965 Family divisionLanguages Six Chumashan languages are attested all now extinct However most of them are in the process of revitalization with language programs and classes Contemporary Chumash people now prefer to refer to their languages by native names rather than the older names based on the local missions Chumashan Northern Chumash Obispeno also known as Northern Chumash Also known as Tilhini by students of the language after the name of the major village near which the mission was founded Southern Chumash Island Chumash mixed with non Chumash Island Chumash also known as Ysleno Isleno Cruzeno Was spoken on the three inhabited islands in the Santa Barbara Channel Islands Santa Rosa San Miguel and Santa Cruz Central Chumash Purisimeno Sʰamala Ineseno Also spelled Samala spoken by the Santa Ynez Band Currently being revived Smuwic Barbareno Also spelled Shmuwich by students of the language and community members This is the name for the language and the people it means coastal Currently being revived Mitsqanaqa n Ventureno Students of the language and community members renamed the language after the name of a major village near which the mission was founded Obispeno was the most divergent Chumashan language The Central Chumash languages include Purisimeno Ineseno Barbareno and Ventureno There was a dialect continuum across this area but the form of the language spoken in the vicinity of each mission was distinct enough to qualify as a different language There is very little documentation of Purisimeno Ineseno Barbareno and Ventureno each had several dialects although documentation usually focused on just one Island Chumash had different dialects on Santa Cruz Island and Santa Rosa Island but all speakers were relocated to the mainland in the early 19th century John Peabody Harrington conducted fieldwork on all the above Chumashan languages but obtained the least data on Island Chumash Purisimeno and Obispeno There is no linguistic data on Cuyama though ethnographic data suggests that it was likely Chumash Interior Chumash There are six or seven Chumashan languages depending in part on how one interprets the status of the poorly attested Interior Chumash Cuyama as a distinct language Post contact The languages are named after the local Franciscan Spanish missions in California where Chumashan speakers were relocated and aggregated between the 1770s and 1830s Obispeno Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa Purisimeno Mission La Purisima Concepcion Ineseno Mission Santa Ines Barbareno Mission Santa Barbara Ventureno Mission San BuenaventuraGenetic relations Roland Dixon and Alfred L Kroeber suggested that the Chumashan languages might be related to the neighboring Salinan in a Iskoman grouping Edward Sapir accepted this speculation and included Iskoman in his classification of Hokan More recently it has been noted that Salinan and Chumashan shared only one word which the Chumashan languages probably borrowed from Salinan the word for white clam shell which was used as currency As a result the inclusion of Chumashan into Hokan is now disfavored by most specialists and the consensus is that Chumashan has no identified linguistic relatives CharacteristicsThe Chumashan languages are well known for their consonant harmony regressive sibilant harmony Mithun presents a scholarly synopsis of Chumashan linguistic structures Vowels The Central Chumash languages all have a symmetrical six vowel system The distinctive high central vowel is written various ways including lt ɨ gt barred I lt e gt schwa and lt i gt I umlaut Contemporary users of the languages favor ɨ or e Vowels of Central Chumash Front Central BackHigh i ɨ e uLow e a o Striking features of this system include Low vowel harmony within morphemes Within a single morpheme adjacent low vowels match they are both or all front e central a or back o Pan Central examples expec to sing I B V ʼosos heel I B V ʼasas chin I B V dd Low vowel harmony as a process Many prefixes include a low vowel which shows up as a when the vowel of the following syllable is high When the vowel of the following syllable is low the vowel of the prefix assimilates to or harmonizes with the front central back quality of the following vowel The verb prefix kal of cutting illustrates this process in the following Barbareno examples where the l may drop out kamasix to cut into three pieces kal masix three keseqen to cut out kal seqen to remove qoloq to make or bore a hole cut a hole in kal loq to be perforated katun to cut into two pieces kal tun of two being two dd Consonants The Central Chumash languages have a complex inventory of consonants All of the consonants except h can be glottalized all of the consonants except h x and the liquids can be aspirated This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it November 2015 Proto languageProto ChumashReconstruction ofChumashan languages Proto Chumash reconstructions by Klar 1977 no gloss Proto Chumash Proto Southern Chumash notes1 advise to si umun2 all yimlaʔ3 alone l ho4 already kVla 5 ant tkaya plus sound symbolism6 armpit ti uq olo lo stem q olo lo 7 arrive ki um8 arrow ya 9 arroyo l VmV10 ascend nVpa11 ashamed to be nos 12 ashes qSa13 ask to VsqVnV14 back body part mVtV 15 ball apapa reduplicated stem16 bat animal mVkala17 bathe to k ep 18 bear animal qus19 bee olo plus sound symbolism20 begin to nVna reduplicated stem 21 blow to aq tV p kVt wu 22 boil to wi 23 bone Se24 bow noun aqa25 break to k oto eqe26 breast kVtet27 breathe breath kal haS haS28 bring to kVlhi29 burn to qi ut30 cost to piw 31 carry to kum32 carry on back to sVpV33 cheek po 34 chest body part kVwV35 chia epV 36 canoe tomolo37 clitoris Cele C ele38 cold to feel toqom qotom39 comb to ti ukikS40 come to yit i VlhVw41 concerned with to be tak42 cooked pSel43 cough to oqoqo reduplicated stem onomatopoetic44 cover to Vqmay45 crack split to eqe46 cut to iwa plus reduplication47 dark colored to be Soy48 day qSi iSa 49 deaf tu 50 deep l hiy51 die to qSa52 dirt uyu53 drink thirsty to be aq mihi l ha o 54 ear tu 55 earth sup56 eat to uw57 eye face tVq58 eyes face having to do with weqe59 far to be mVkV60 fat qilhi61 fight to aqi u62 fire ne63 flower pey 64 flea tep Proto Central Chumash 65 fly insect axulpes66 follow to pey67 food cf eat uw uw eat plus mu nominalizing suffix 68 foot teme 69 forget to may70 full from eating to be qti 71 get up to kVta 72 gopher snake pSoSo reduplicated stem73 grasshopper ti uqu root qu74 gull sp miyV75 hair fur SuSV reduplicated stem 76 hand pu77 hang to wayan waya78 hear to taq79 heel ososo reduplicated stem80 hello greeting haku81 hole loq82 hole cave den Si SiSV83 homosexual to be aqi 84 jimson weed mom oy from moy85 knee pVm V86 knife iw87 lie down to toy ton 88 liver c al a89 look to kuti kuti 90 louse Seke91 low tide qVw92 many much equ93 meat body Vmin 94 moist to be so 95 money clam sp ala qu Cum ana qu Cum Cum is the root96 mosquito pewe we 97 mother in law mVSV98 mountain lion tVkem 99 mouse qlo plus reduplication100 mouth Vk101 name ti102 neck ni 103 necklace el 104 nerve pilhil105 nest patV patV 106 new to be VmVn107 now kipV 108 oak spp kuwu 109 one eyed to be ta 110 open to kal111 overcast to be iqVmay112 pelican sew113 person ku114 pet qo 115 pick up lift raise lay116 prickly pear qV 117 quail takaka onomatopoetic118 rabbit jackrabbit ma kuni 119 rain to tuhuy tuy120 red qupe121 roadrunner pu 122 rub to muy123 salt tepu tipu 124 save rescue to apay125 seed VmVn 126 skunk tVqema127 smoke tuwo 128 snail sea q VmV 129 speak say to ipi 130 split stick rattle wanS aq a wacs aq a131 spread open kek an132 squirrel ground emet em et 133 steps tVyV 134 stick to to pey pey 135 sticky to be pilhiy136 stone rock qVpV137 straight tyiyeme 138 swordfish eleyewun 139 tadpole qlo qyo root small creature cf mouse 140 tail telheq 141 take off to qe142 tears tinik 143 tongue elhew 144 tooth Sa145 urinate to Sol 146 vomit paS V 147 walk to 148 warm self to mol149 water o 150 whale paqat V 151 wood tree stick pono 152 woodpecker pVlak a k 153 wrinkled Sok plus reduplication154 yawn San plus reduplication155 yellow jacket ɨyɨ ɨyɨ See alsoRock art of the Chumash people Burro Flats Painted Cave Population of Native California Native Americans in the United StatesNotesGrant 1978 Golla Victor 2011 California Indian Languages Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 978 0 5202 6667 4 Dixon and Kroeber 1913 Sapir 1917 Klar 1977 Mithun 1999 390 Mithun 1999 390 392 Klar Kathryn A 1977 Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar Doctoral dissertation University of California at Berkeley BibliographyChumashan languages at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from Commons Campbell Lyle 1997 American Indian languages The historical linguistics of Native America New York Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 509427 1 Dixon Roland R amp Kroeber Alfred L 1913 New Linguistic Families in California American Anthropologist 15 647 655 Goddard Ives Ed 1996 Languages Handbook of North American Indians W C Sturtevant General Ed Vol 17 Washington D C Smithsonian Institution ISBN 0 16 048774 9 Klar Kathryn 1977 Topics in historical Chumash grammar Doctoral dissertation University of California Berkeley Kroeber Alfred Louis 1910 The Chumash and Costanoan languages Berkeley The University Press Retrieved 2012 08 26 Mithun Marianne 1999 The languages of Native North America Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 23228 7 hbk ISBN 0 521 29875 X Grant Campbell 1978 Chumash Introduction In California Handbook of North American Indians William C Sturtevant General Ed Vol 8 Robert F Heizer Volume Ed Washington D C Smithsonian Institution Sapir Edward 1917 The Position of Yana in the Hokan Stock University of California Publications in American Archaeology and ethnology 13 1 34 Berkeley University of California
