The East Slavic languages constitute one of three regional subgroups of the Slavic languages, distinct from the West and South Slavic languages. East Slavic languages are currently spoken natively throughout Eastern Europe, and eastwards to Siberia and the Russian Far East. In part due to the large historical influence of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union, the Russian language is also spoken as a lingua franca in many regions of Caucasus and Central Asia. Of the three Slavic branches, East Slavic is the most spoken, with the number of native speakers larger than the Western and Southern branches combined.
| East Slavic | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Eurasia (Eastern Europe, Northern Asia, and the Caucasus) |
| Linguistic classification | Indo-European
|
Early forms | Proto-Indo-European
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-5 | zle |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| Glottolog | east1426 |
The common consensus is that Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian are the extant East Slavic languages. Some linguists also consider Rusyn a separate language, although it is sometimes considered a dialect of Ukrainian.
The modern East Slavic languages descend from a common predecessor spoken in Kievan Rus' from the 9th to 13th centuries, which later evolved into Ruthenian, the chancery language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Dnieper river valley, and into medieval Russian in the Volga river valley, the language of the Russian principalities including the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
All these languages use the Cyrillic script, but with particular modifications. Belarusian and Ukrainian, which are descendants of Ruthenian, have a tradition of using Latin-based alphabets—the Belarusian Lacinka and the Ukrainian Latynka alphabets, respectively (also Rusyn uses Latin in some regions, e.g. in Slovakia).
Distribution
Classification
Modern East Slavic languages include Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian. The Rusyn language is sometimes considered the fourth living language of the group, its status as an independent language being the subject of scientific debate.
Distinctive features
Vocabulary
The East Slavic territory exhibits a linguistic continuum with many transitional dialects. Between Belarusian and Ukrainian there is the Polesian dialect, which shares features from both languages. East Polesian is a transitional variety between Belarusian and Ukrainian on one hand, and between South Russian and Ukrainian on the other hand. At the same time, Belarusian and Southern Russian form a continuous area, making it virtually impossible to draw a line between the two languages. Central or Middle Russian (with its Moscow sub-dialect), the transitional step between the North and the South, became a base for the Russian literary standard. Northern Russian with its predecessor, the Old Novgorod dialect, has many original and archaic features.
Ruthenian, the ancestor of modern Belarusian and Ukrainian, was the official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as "Chancery Slavonic" until the end of the 17th century when it was gradually replaced by the Polish language. It was also the native language of the Cossack Hetmanate until the end of the 18th century, when the Ukrainian state completely became part of the Russian Empire in 1764. The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk from 1710 is one of the most important written sources of the Ruthenian language. Due to the influence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth over many centuries, Belarusian and Ukrainian have been influenced in several respects by Polish, a Lechitic West Slavic language. As a result of the long Polish-Lithuanian rule, these languages had been less exposed to Church Slavonic, featuring therefore less Church Slavonicisms than the modern Russian language, for example:
| Ukrainian | Belarusian | Russian |
|---|---|---|
| солодкий (solodkyj) | салодкі (salodki) | сладкий (sladkij) |
Additionally, the original East Slavic phonetic form was kept in many words in Ukrainian and Belarusian, for example:
| Ukrainian | Belarusian | Russian |
|---|---|---|
| одиниця (odynycia) | адзінка (adzinka) | eдиница (yedinica) |
In general, Ukrainian and Belarusian are also closer to other Western European languages, especially to German (via Polish). At the same time Russian was being heavily influenced by Church Slavonic (South Slavic language), but also by the Turkic and Uralic languages. For example:
| Ukrainian | Belarusian | Russian |
|---|---|---|
| шукати (šukaty) | шукаць (šukać) | искать (iskat́) |
| Compare Polish "szukać" and Old Low German "sōkian" (German "suchen") | Compare Bulgarian "искам" (iskam) (with a meaning shift: "to want") and Serbo-Croatian "искати" (iskati) | |
What's more, all three languages do also have false friends, that sometimes can lead to (big) misunderstandings. For example, Ukrainian орати (oraty) — "to plow" and Russian орать (orat́) — "to scream", or Ukrainian помітити (pomityty) — "to notice" and Russian пометить (pometit́) — "to mark".
Orthography
Alphabet
The alphabets of the East Slavic languages are all written in the Cyrillic script, however each of them has their own letters and pronunciations. Russian and Ukrainian have 33 letters, while Belarusian has 32. Additionally, Belarusian and Ukrainian use the apostrophe (') for the hard sign, which has the same function as the letter Ъ in Russian.
| East Slavic languages | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Russian | А | Б | В | Г | Д | Е | Ё | Ж | З | И | Й | К | Л | М | Н | О | П | Р | С | Т | У | Ф | Х | Ц | Ч | Ш | Щ | Ъ | Ы | Ь | Э | Ю | Я | |||||
| Belarusian | А | Б | В | Г | Д | Е | Ё | Ж | З | І | Й | К | Л | М | Н | О | П | Р | С | Т | У | Ў | Ф | Х | Ц | Ч | Ш | ' | Ы | Ь | Э | Ю | Я | |||||
| Ukrainian | А | Б | В | Г | Ґ | Д | Е | Є | Ж | З | И | І | Ї | Й | К | Л | М | Н | О | П | Р | С | Т | У | Ф | Х | Ц | Ч | Ш | Щ | ' | Ь | Ю | Я | ||||
Some letters, that are not included in the alphabet of a language, can be written as digraphs. For example, the sound values of the letter Ё, which doesn't exist in the Ukrainian alphabet, can be written as ЙО (ЬО before and after consonants), while the letter Щ in Russian and Ukrainian corresponds to ШЧ in Belarusian (compare Belarusian плошча and Ukrainian площа ("area")).
There are also different rules of usage for certain letters, e.g. the soft sign (Ь) cannot be written after the letter Ц in Russian, because the consonant /tsʲ/ does not exist in the Russian language, while in Ukrainian and especially Belarusian, on the contrary, it is relatively common (Ukrainian ць etymologically corresponds to Russian and Belarusian ц; Belarusian ць etymologically corresponds to Russian and Ukrainian ть). Moreover, the letter Щ in standard Russian is always pronounced softly (palatalization).
Standard Ukrainian, unlike all the other Slavic languages (excl. Serbo-Croatian), does not exhibit final devoicing. Nevertheless, this rule is not that clear when listening to colloquial Ukrainian. It's one of the typical deviations that occur in the Ukrainian spoken language.
Different sound values of letters
Besides the differences of the alphabets, some letters represent different sounds depending on the language. For example, the letter И (romanized as I for Russian and Y for Ukrainian) in Russian is mostly pronounced as /i/ (identical with the Ukrainian І), while in Ukrainian it's mostly pronounced as /ɪ/ (very similar to the Russian Ы). Other examples:
| Letter | Pronunciation | |
|---|---|---|
| Belarusian and Russian Е | Ukrainian Є | /je/, /ʲe/ |
| Belarusian and Russian Э | Ukrainian Е | /e/ |
| Belarusian and Russian Ы | Ukrainian И | /ɨ/ (B. and R.), /ɪ/ (U.) |
| Belarusian and Ukrainian І | Russian И | /i/, /ʲi/ |
| Belarusian and Ukrainian Г | no sound in Russian | /ɣ/, /ɦ/ |
| Russian Г | Ukrainian Ґ | /ɡ/ |
Phonology
This section does not cite any sources. (November 2014) |
| Isoglosses | Northern Russian | Standard Russian (Moscow dialect) | Southern Russian | Standard Belarusian | Standard Ukrainian | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| reduction of unstressed /o/ (akanye) | no | yes | no | R. голова́ /ɡɐlɐˈva/, B. галава́ /ɣalaˈva/, U. голова́ /ɦɔlɔˈʋa/ "head" | ||
| pretonic /ʲe/ (yakanye) | /ʲe/ | /ʲi/ | /ʲa/ | /e/ | R. земля́ /zʲiˈmlʲa/, B. зямля́ /zʲaˈmlʲa/, U. земля́ /zeˈmlʲa/ "earth" | |
| Proto-Slavic *i | /i/ | /ɪ/ | R. лист /ˈlʲist/, B. ліст /ˈlʲist/, U. лист /ˈlɪst/ "leaf" | |||
| Proto-Slavic *y | /ɨ/ | R./B. ты /ˈtɨ/, U. ти /ˈtɪ/ "thou, you" | ||||
| stressed CoC | /o/ | /i/ | R. ночь /ˈnot͡ɕ/, B. ноч /ˈnot͡ʂ/, U. ніч /ˈnʲit͡ʃ/ "night" | |||
| Proto-Slavic *ě | /e̝~i̯ɛ~i/ | /e/ | R. се́мя /ˈsʲemʲa/, B. се́мя /ˈsʲemʲa/, U. сі́м'я /ˈsʲimja/ "seed" | |||
| /e/>/o/ change before nonpalatalized consonants | always | under stress | after /j/, /nʲ/, /lʲ/, /ʒ/, /ʃ/, /t͡ʃ/ | R. зелёный /zʲiˈlʲonɨj/, B. зялёны /zʲaˈlʲonɨ/, U. зеле́ний /zeˈlenɪj/ "green" | ||
| Proto-Slavic *c | /t͡s/ | /t͡s, t͡sʲ/ | R. волчица (volčica) B. ваўчыца (vaŭčyca) U. вовчиця (vovčyc’a) ”female wolf” | |||
| Proto-Slavic *č | /t͡ɕ/ | /t͡ʂ/ | /t͡ʃ/ | R. час /ˈt͡ɕas/ "hour", B. час /ˈt͡ʂas/, U. час /ˈt͡ʃas/ "time" | ||
| Proto-Slavic *skj, zgj | /ɕː/,/ʑː/ | /ʂt͡ʂ/, /ʐd͡ʐ/ | /ʃt͡ʃ/, /ʒd͡ʒ/ | R. ещё /jeˈɕːo/ B. яшчэ /jaˈʂt͡ʂe/ U. ще /ʃt͡ʃe/ “yet” | ||
| soft dental stops | /tʲ/, /dʲ/ | /t͡sʲ/, /d͡zʲ/ | /tʲ/, /dʲ/ | R. де́сять /ˈdʲesʲitʲ/, B. дзе́сяць /ˈd͡zʲesʲat͡sʲ/, U. де́сять /ˈdesʲatʲ/ "ten" | ||
| Proto-Slavic *v | /v, f/ | /w/ | /v/ [v, w] | /ʋ/ [β, w] /u̯/ (at the end of a closed syllable) | R. о́стров /ˈostraf/, B. во́страў /ˈvostrau̯/, U. о́стрів /ˈostriu̯/ "island" | |
| /f/ (in loanwords) | /f/ | /x~xv~xw~xu̯/ | /f/ | |||
| Prothetic /v~w~u̯/ | no | yes | R. о́стров /ˈostraf/, B. во́страў /ˈvostrau̯/, U. о́стрів /ˈostriu̯/ "island" | |||
| Proto-Slavic *g | /ɡ/ | /ɣ/ | /ɦ/ | R. голова́ /ɡɐlɐˈva/, B. галава́ /ɣalaˈva/, U. голова́ /ɦɔlɔˈʋa/ "head" | ||
| Hardening of final soft labials | no | yes | R. степь /sʲtʲepʲ/, B. стэп /stɛp/, U. степ /stɛp/ "steppe" | |||
| Hardening of soft /rʲ/ | no | yes | hardened at the end of a closed syllable and not hardened elsewere | R. матерь (máter’) B. Вікторыя (Viktoryja) U. кобзар (kobzár (nominative case) кобзаря (kobzar’á (genetive case) | ||
| Proto-Slavic *CrьC, ClьC, CrъC, CrъC | /rʲe/, /lʲe/, /ro/, /lo/ | /rɨ/, /ro/, /lʲi/, /lɨ/ | /rɪ/, /lɪ/, /ro/, /lo/ | Protoslavic. ‘*kry (singular accusative case. krьvь); R. кровь (krov’), кровавый (krovávyj) B. кроў (kroŭ), крывавы (kryvávy) U. кров (krov), кривавий (kryvávyj) ”blood, bloody” | ||
| Proto-Slavic *-ъj-, -ьj- | /oj/, /ej/ | /ɨj/, /ij/ | /ɪj/ | |||
| Proto-Slavic adj. end. *-ьjь | /ej/ | /ij/,/ej/ | /ej/ | /ij/ | /ɪj/, /ij/ | |
| Proto-Slavic adj. end. *-ъjь | /oj/ | /ɨj/,/oj/ | /oj/ | /ɨj/ | /ɪj/ | |
| Loss of the vocative case | no | yes | no | |||
| 3 sg. & pl. pres. ind. | /t/ | /tʲ/ | /t͡sʲ/ | /tʲ/ | R. ду́мают /ˈdumajut/, B. ду́маюць /ˈdumajut͡sʲ/, Uk. ду́мають /ˈdumajutʲ/ "(they) think" | |
| Dropping out of 3 sg. pres. ind. ending (in e-stems) | no | yes | R. скажет (skážet) B. скажа (skáža) U. скаже (skáže) ”(he/she) will say” | |||
| 3 sg. masc. past ind. | /v~w~u̯/ | /l/ | /u̯/ | R. ду́мал /ˈdumal/, B. ду́маў /ˈdumau̯/, U. ду́мав /ˈdumau̯/ "(he) thought" | ||
| 2nd palatalization in oblique cases | no | yes | R. руке́ /ruˈkʲe/, B. руцэ́ /ruˈt͡se/, U. руці́ /ruˈt͡sʲi/ "hand" (locative or prepositional case) | |||
Notes
- Except for the Polesian dialect of Brest
- Except for the Eastern Polesian dialect
- Consonants are hard before /e/
- Except for some dialects
- In some Ukrainian dialects C/o/C can be /y~y̯e~y̯i~u̯o/
- In some Ukrainian dialects PSl *ě can be /e̝~i̯ɛ/
- Also at the end of words (in Russian and Belarusian). In Belarusian (unlike Russian), the change is not present in stressed 2 and 3 sg. pres. ind. endings.
- Can be /s/ in South Russian
- In some Northern Russian dialects, Proto-Slavic *c and *č have merged into one sound, variously pronounced as /t͡s, t͡sʲ, t͡ʂ, t͡ɕ/ depending on a dialect.
- Can be /ɕ/ in Southern Russian
- Can be /ɕt͡ɕ/, /ʂː/
- In Russian light affrication can occur: [tˢʲ] , [dᶻʲ]
- In some Northern Russian sub-dialects /v/ is not devoiced to /f/
- Except for восемь "eight" and some others
- Only unstressed, Church Slavonic influence
- Stressed, unstressed is usually reduced to [ʲəj]
- Stressed, unstressed is usually reduced to [əj]
- In colloquial Russian, new vocative has appeared from a pure stem: мам, пап, Маш, Вань etc.
- In the dialect of Vologda
History
Influence of Church Slavonic
After the conversion of the East Slavic region to Christianity the people used service books borrowed from Bulgaria, which were written in Old Church Slavonic (a South Slavic language). The Church Slavonic language was strictly used only in text, while the colloquial language of the Bulgarians was communicated in its spoken form.[citation needed]
Throughout the Middle Ages (and in some way up to the present day) there existed a duality between the Church Slavonic language used as some kind of 'higher' register (not only) in religious texts and the popular tongue used as a 'lower' register for secular texts. It has been suggested to describe this situation as diglossia, although there do exist mixed texts where it is sometimes very hard to determine why a given author used a popular or a Church Slavonic form in a given context. Church Slavonic was a major factor in the evolution of modern Russian, where there still exists a "high stratum" of words that were imported from this language.
See also
- Outline of Slavic history and culture
References
- "Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации". publication.pravo.gov.ru. Archived from the original on February 5, 2022. Retrieved 2018-11-04.
- Sussex & Cubberley 2006, pp. 79–89.
- Pugh 2009, p. 7.
- Moser 2016, p. 124-139.
- "Dulichenko, Aleksandr The language of Carpathian Rus': Genetic Aspects" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-25. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
- Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. (1 September 2003). The Slavonic Languages. Taylor & Francis. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-203-21320-9. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
...following Vuk's reform of Cyrillic in the early nineteenth century, Ljudevit Gaj in the 1830s performed the same operation on Latinica, using the Czech system and producing a one-to-one symbol correlation between Cyrillic and Latinica as applied to the Serbian and Croatian parallel systems
- Moser, Michael A. (2018). "The Fate of the Ruthenian or Little Russian (Ukrainian) Language in Austrian Galicia (1772–1867)". Harvard Ukrainian Studies. 35 (2017–2018) (1/4): 124–139. JSTOR 44983536. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
- "Указ об учреждении губерний и о росписании к ним городов". constitution.garant.ru. Retrieved 2024-01-15.
- "Turkic words in Russian". Languages Of The World. 2011-02-14. Retrieved 2024-01-15.
- "Database of False Friends in Slavic Languages". Danish Portal for East European Studies. Retrieved 2024-01-16.
- "Фонетика й вимова - Олександр Пономарів". ponomariv-kultura-slova.wikidot.com. Retrieved 2022-11-11.
- Sussex & Cubberley 2006, pp. 63–65.
- Sussex & Cubberley 2006, pp. 477–478.
Sources
- Moser, Michael A. (2016). "Rusyn: A New-Old Language In-between Nations and States". The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 124–139. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-34839-5_7. ISBN 978-1-349-57703-3. Archived from the original on 14 January 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
- Pugh, Stefan M. (2009). The Rusyn Language. Munich, Germany: LINCOM GmbH. ISBN 978-3-89586-940-2. Archived from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2021.
- Sussex, Roland; Cubberley, Paul (2006). The Slavic languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22315-7.
Further reading
- Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G, eds. (1993). "East Slavonic languages". The Slavonic languages. London, New York: Routledge. pp. 827–1036. ISBN 0-415-04755-2.
External links
- "Belgorod Residents Speak Their Own Language, Even Russian Linguists Say" by Paul A. Goble, Window on Eurasia (March 24, 2024)
The East Slavic languages constitute one of three regional subgroups of the Slavic languages distinct from the West and South Slavic languages East Slavic languages are currently spoken natively throughout Eastern Europe and eastwards to Siberia and the Russian Far East In part due to the large historical influence of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union the Russian language is also spoken as a lingua franca in many regions of Caucasus and Central Asia Of the three Slavic branches East Slavic is the most spoken with the number of native speakers larger than the Western and Southern branches combined East SlavicGeographic distributionEurasia Eastern Europe Northern Asia and the Caucasus Linguistic classificationIndo EuropeanBalto SlavicSlavicEast SlavicEarly formsProto Indo European Proto Balto Slavic Proto Slavic Old East SlavicSubdivisionsBelarusian Podlachian Russian Rusyn UkrainianLanguage codesISO 639 5 a href https iso639 3 sil org code zle class extiw title iso639 3 zle zle a ISO 639 3 Glottologeast1426 The common consensus is that Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian are the extant East Slavic languages Some linguists also consider Rusyn a separate language although it is sometimes considered a dialect of Ukrainian The modern East Slavic languages descend from a common predecessor spoken in Kievan Rus from the 9th to 13th centuries which later evolved into Ruthenian the chancery language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Dnieper river valley and into medieval Russian in the Volga river valley the language of the Russian principalities including the Grand Duchy of Moscow All these languages use the Cyrillic script but with particular modifications Belarusian and Ukrainian which are descendants of Ruthenian have a tradition of using Latin based alphabets the Belarusian Lacinka and the Ukrainian Latynka alphabets respectively also Rusyn uses Latin in some regions e g in Slovakia DistributionDistribution of the Ukrainian language in EuropeDistribution of the Belarusian language in EuropeDistribution of the Russian language in EurasiaClassificationModern East Slavic languages include Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian The Rusyn language is sometimes considered the fourth living language of the group its status as an independent language being the subject of scientific debate Distinctive featuresVocabulary The East Slavic territory exhibits a linguistic continuum with many transitional dialects Between Belarusian and Ukrainian there is the Polesian dialect which shares features from both languages East Polesian is a transitional variety between Belarusian and Ukrainian on one hand and between South Russian and Ukrainian on the other hand At the same time Belarusian and Southern Russian form a continuous area making it virtually impossible to draw a line between the two languages Central or Middle Russian with its Moscow sub dialect the transitional step between the North and the South became a base for the Russian literary standard Northern Russian with its predecessor the Old Novgorod dialect has many original and archaic features Ruthenian the ancestor of modern Belarusian and Ukrainian was the official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as Chancery Slavonic until the end of the 17th century when it was gradually replaced by the Polish language It was also the native language of the Cossack Hetmanate until the end of the 18th century when the Ukrainian state completely became part of the Russian Empire in 1764 The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk from 1710 is one of the most important written sources of the Ruthenian language Due to the influence of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth over many centuries Belarusian and Ukrainian have been influenced in several respects by Polish a Lechitic West Slavic language As a result of the long Polish Lithuanian rule these languages had been less exposed to Church Slavonic featuring therefore less Church Slavonicisms than the modern Russian language for example Comparison of the word sweet Ukrainian Belarusian Russiansolodkij solodkyj salodki salodki sladkij sladkij Additionally the original East Slavic phonetic form was kept in many words in Ukrainian and Belarusian for example Comparison of the word unit Ukrainian Belarusian Russianodinicya odynycia adzinka adzinka edinica yedinica In general Ukrainian and Belarusian are also closer to other Western European languages especially to German via Polish At the same time Russian was being heavily influenced by Church Slavonic South Slavic language but also by the Turkic and Uralic languages For example Comparison of the word to search Ukrainian Belarusian Russianshukati sukaty shukac sukac iskat iskat Compare Polish szukac and Old Low German sōkian German suchen Compare Bulgarian iskam iskam with a meaning shift to want and Serbo Croatian iskati iskati What s more all three languages do also have false friends that sometimes can lead to big misunderstandings For example Ukrainian orati oraty to plow and Russian orat orat to scream or Ukrainian pomititi pomityty to notice and Russian pometit pometit to mark Orthography Alphabet The alphabets of the East Slavic languages are all written in the Cyrillic script however each of them has their own letters and pronunciations Russian and Ukrainian have 33 letters while Belarusian has 32 Additionally Belarusian and Ukrainian use the apostrophe for the hard sign which has the same function as the letter in Russian Cyrillic alphabets comparison table East Slavic languagesRussian A B V G D E Yo Zh Z I J K L M N O P R S T U F H C Ch Sh Sh Y E Yu YaBelarusian A B V G D E Yo Zh Z I J K L M N O P R S T U Ў F H C Ch Sh Y E Yu YaUkrainian A B V G G D E Ye Zh Z I I Yi J K L M N O P R S T U F H C Ch Sh Sh Yu Ya Some letters that are not included in the alphabet of a language can be written as digraphs For example the sound values of the letter Yo which doesn t exist in the Ukrainian alphabet can be written as JO O before and after consonants while the letter Sh in Russian and Ukrainian corresponds to ShCh in Belarusian compare Belarusian ploshcha and Ukrainian plosha area There are also different rules of usage for certain letters e g the soft sign cannot be written after the letter C in Russian because the consonant tsʲ does not exist in the Russian language while in Ukrainian and especially Belarusian on the contrary it is relatively common Ukrainian c etymologically corresponds to Russian and Belarusian c Belarusian c etymologically corresponds to Russian and Ukrainian t Moreover the letter Sh in standard Russian is always pronounced softly palatalization Standard Ukrainian unlike all the other Slavic languages excl Serbo Croatian does not exhibit final devoicing Nevertheless this rule is not that clear when listening to colloquial Ukrainian It s one of the typical deviations that occur in the Ukrainian spoken language Different sound values of letters Besides the differences of the alphabets some letters represent different sounds depending on the language For example the letter I romanized as I for Russian and Y for Ukrainian in Russian is mostly pronounced as i identical with the Ukrainian I while in Ukrainian it s mostly pronounced as ɪ very similar to the Russian Y Other examples False friends Letter PronunciationBelarusian and Russian E Ukrainian Ye je ʲe Belarusian and Russian E Ukrainian E e Belarusian and Russian Y Ukrainian I ɨ B and R ɪ U Belarusian and Ukrainian I Russian I i ʲi Belarusian and Ukrainian G no sound in Russian ɣ ɦ Russian G Ukrainian G ɡ Phonology This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2014 Learn how and when to remove this message Isoglosses Northern Russian Standard Russian Moscow dialect Southern Russian Standard Belarusian Standard Ukrainian Examplesreduction of unstressed o akanye no yes no R golova ɡɐlɐˈva B galava ɣalaˈva U golova ɦɔlɔˈʋa head pretonic ʲe yakanye ʲe ʲi ʲa e R zemlya zʲiˈmlʲa B zyamlya zʲaˈmlʲa U zemlya zeˈmlʲa earth Proto Slavic i i ɪ R list ˈlʲist B list ˈlʲist U list ˈlɪst leaf Proto Slavic y ɨ R B ty ˈtɨ U ti ˈtɪ thou you stressed CoC o i R noch ˈnot ɕ B noch ˈnot ʂ U nich ˈnʲit ʃ night Proto Slavic e e i ɛ i e R se mya ˈsʲemʲa B se mya ˈsʲemʲa U si m ya ˈsʲimja seed e gt o change before nonpalatalized consonants always under stress after j nʲ lʲ ʒ ʃ t ʃ R zelyonyj zʲiˈlʲonɨj B zyalyony zʲaˈlʲonɨ U zele nij zeˈlenɪj green Proto Slavic c t s t s t sʲ R volchica volcica B vaychyca vaŭcyca U vovchicya vovcyc a female wolf Proto Slavic c t ɕ t ʂ t ʃ R chas ˈt ɕas hour B chas ˈt ʂas U chas ˈt ʃas time Proto Slavic skj zgj ɕː ʑː ʂt ʂ ʐd ʐ ʃt ʃ ʒd ʒ R eshyo jeˈɕːo B yashche jaˈʂt ʂe U she ʃt ʃe yet soft dental stops tʲ dʲ t sʲ d zʲ tʲ dʲ R de syat ˈdʲesʲitʲ B dze syac ˈd zʲesʲat sʲ U de syat ˈdesʲatʲ ten Proto Slavic v v f w v v w ʋ b w u at the end of a closed syllable R o strov ˈostraf B vo stray ˈvostrau U o striv ˈostriu island f in loanwords f x xv xw xu f Prothetic v w u no yes R o strov ˈostraf B vo stray ˈvostrau U o striv ˈostriu island Proto Slavic g ɡ ɣ ɦ R golova ɡɐlɐˈva B galava ɣalaˈva U golova ɦɔlɔˈʋa head Hardening of final soft labials no yes R step sʲtʲepʲ B step stɛp U step stɛp steppe Hardening of soft rʲ no yes hardened at the end of a closed syllable and not hardened elsewere R mater mater B Viktoryya Viktoryja U kobzar kobzar nominative case kobzarya kobzar a genetive case Proto Slavic CrC ClC CrC CrC rʲe lʲe ro lo rɨ ro lʲi lɨ rɪ lɪ ro lo Protoslavic kry singular accusative case krv R krov krov krovavyj krovavyj B kroy kroŭ kryvavy kryvavy U krov krov krivavij kryvavyj blood bloody Proto Slavic j j oj ej ɨj ij ɪj Proto Slavic adj end j ej ij ej ej ij ɪj ij Proto Slavic adj end j oj ɨj oj oj ɨj ɪj Loss of the vocative case no yes no3 sg amp pl pres ind t tʲ t sʲ tʲ R du mayut ˈdumajut B du mayuc ˈdumajut sʲ Uk du mayut ˈdumajutʲ they think Dropping out of 3 sg pres ind ending in e stems no yes R skazhet skazet B skazha skaza U skazhe skaze he she will say 3 sg masc past ind v w u l u R du mal ˈdumal B du may ˈdumau U du mav ˈdumau he thought 2nd palatalization in oblique cases no yes R ruke ruˈkʲe B ruce ruˈt se U ruci ruˈt sʲi hand locative or prepositional case Notes Except for the Polesian dialect of Brest Except for the Eastern Polesian dialect Consonants are hard before e Except for some dialects In some Ukrainian dialects C o C can be y y e y i u o In some Ukrainian dialects PSl e can be e i ɛ Also at the end of words in Russian and Belarusian In Belarusian unlike Russian the change is not present in stressed 2 and 3 sg pres ind endings Can be s in South Russian In some Northern Russian dialects Proto Slavic c and c have merged into one sound variously pronounced as t s t sʲ t ʂ t ɕ depending on a dialect Can be ɕ in Southern Russian Can be ɕt ɕ ʂː In Russian light affrication can occur tˢʲ dᶻʲ In some Northern Russian sub dialects v is not devoiced to f Except for vosem eight and some others Only unstressed Church Slavonic influence Stressed unstressed is usually reduced to ʲej Stressed unstressed is usually reduced to ej In colloquial Russian new vocative has appeared from a pure stem mam pap Mash Van etc In the dialect of VologdaHistoryInfluence of Church Slavonic After the conversion of the East Slavic region to Christianity the people used service books borrowed from Bulgaria which were written in Old Church Slavonic a South Slavic language The Church Slavonic language was strictly used only in text while the colloquial language of the Bulgarians was communicated in its spoken form citation needed Throughout the Middle Ages and in some way up to the present day there existed a duality between the Church Slavonic language used as some kind of higher register not only in religious texts and the popular tongue used as a lower register for secular texts It has been suggested to describe this situation as diglossia although there do exist mixed texts where it is sometimes very hard to determine why a given author used a popular or a Church Slavonic form in a given context Church Slavonic was a major factor in the evolution of modern Russian where there still exists a high stratum of words that were imported from this language See alsoOutline of Slavic history and cultureReferences Oficialnyj internet portal pravovoj informacii publication pravo gov ru Archived from the original on February 5 2022 Retrieved 2018 11 04 Sussex amp Cubberley 2006 pp 79 89 Pugh 2009 p 7 Moser 2016 p 124 139 Dulichenko Aleksandr The language of Carpathian Rus Genetic Aspects PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2013 06 25 Retrieved 2009 12 12 Comrie Bernard Corbett Greville G 1 September 2003 The Slavonic Languages Taylor amp Francis p 45 ISBN 978 0 203 21320 9 Archived from the original on 15 February 2017 Retrieved 22 November 2017 following Vuk s reform of Cyrillic in the early nineteenth century Ljudevit Gaj in the 1830s performed the same operation on Latinica using the Czech system and producing a one to one symbol correlation between Cyrillic and Latinica as applied to the Serbian and Croatian parallel systems Moser Michael A 2018 The Fate of the Ruthenian or Little Russian Ukrainian Language in Austrian Galicia 1772 1867 Harvard Ukrainian Studies 35 2017 2018 1 4 124 139 JSTOR 44983536 Archived from the original on 5 May 2021 Retrieved 28 June 2021 Ukaz ob uchrezhdenii gubernij i o rospisanii k nim gorodov constitution garant ru Retrieved 2024 01 15 Turkic words in Russian Languages Of The World 2011 02 14 Retrieved 2024 01 15 Database of False Friends in Slavic Languages Danish Portal for East European Studies Retrieved 2024 01 16 Fonetika j vimova Oleksandr Ponomariv ponomariv kultura slova wikidot com Retrieved 2022 11 11 Sussex amp Cubberley 2006 pp 63 65 Sussex amp Cubberley 2006 pp 477 478 SourcesMoser Michael A 2016 Rusyn A New Old Language In between Nations and States The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages Identities and Borders London Palgrave Macmillan pp 124 139 doi 10 1007 978 1 137 34839 5 7 ISBN 978 1 349 57703 3 Archived from the original on 14 January 2020 Retrieved 16 October 2019 Pugh Stefan M 2009 The Rusyn Language Munich Germany LINCOM GmbH ISBN 978 3 89586 940 2 Archived from the original on 15 December 2021 Retrieved 15 December 2021 Sussex Roland Cubberley Paul 2006 The Slavic languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 22315 7 Further readingComrie Bernard Corbett Greville G eds 1993 East Slavonic languages The Slavonic languages London New York Routledge pp 827 1036 ISBN 0 415 04755 2 External linksWikimedia Commons has media related to East Slavic languages Belgorod Residents Speak Their Own Language Even Russian Linguists Say by Paul A Goble Window on Eurasia March 24 2024
