This article needs additional citations for verification.(August 2022) |
The South Slavic languages are one of three branches of the Slavic languages. There are approximately 30 million speakers, mainly in the Balkans. These are separated geographically from speakers of the other two Slavic branches (West and East) by a belt of German, Hungarian and Romanian speakers.
South Slavic | |
---|---|
Geographic distribution | Southeast Europe |
Linguistic classification | Indo-European
|
Subdivisions |
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Language codes | |
ISO 639-5 | zls |
ISO 639-3 | – |
Glottolog | sout3147 |
Countries where a South Slavic language is the national language |
History
The first South Slavic language to be written (also the first attested Slavic language) was the variety of the Eastern South Slavic spoken in Thessaloniki, now called Old Church Slavonic, in the ninth century. It is retained as a liturgical language in Slavic Orthodox churches in the form of various local Church Slavonic traditions.[citation needed]
Classification
The South Slavic languages constitute a dialect continuum. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin constitute a single dialect within this continuum.
- South Slavic
- Eastern South Slavic
- Bulgarian – (ISO 639-1 code: bg; ISO 639-2 code: bul; SIL code: bul; Linguasphere: 53-AAA-hb)
- Macedonian – (ISO 639-1 code: mk; ISO 639-2(B) code: mac; ISO 639-2(T) code: mkd; SIL code: mkd; Linguasphere: 53-AAA-ha)
- Old Church Slavonic (extinct) – (ISO 639-1 code: cu; ISO 639-2 code: chu; SIL code: chu; Linguasphere: 53-AAA-a)
- Transitional South Slavic
- Torlakian
- Western South Slavic [ru]
- Slovene (ISO 639-1 code: sl; ISO 639-2 code: slv; ISO 639-3 code: slv; Linguasphere: 53-AAA-f)
- Kajkavian (ISO 639-3 code: kjv)
- Chakavian (ISO 639-3 code: ckm)
- Serbo-Croatian/Shtokavian (ISO 639-1 code: sh; ISO 639-2/3 code: hbs; SIL code: scr; Linguasphere: 53-AAA-g).
There are four national standard languages based on the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect:- Serbian (ISO 639-1 code: sr; ISO 639-2/3 code: srp; SIL code: srp)
- Croatian (ISO 639-1 code: hr; ISO 639-2/3 code: hrv; SIL code: hrv)
- Bosnian (ISO 639-1 code: bs; ISO 639-2/3 code: bos; SIL code: bos)
- Montenegrin (ISO 639-2/3 code: cnr; SIL code: cnr)
- Eastern South Slavic
Linguistic prehistory
The Slavic languages are part of the Balto-Slavic group, which belongs to the Indo-European language family. The South Slavic languages have been considered a genetic node in Slavic studies: defined by a set of phonological, morphological and lexical innovations (isoglosses) which separate it from the Western and Eastern Slavic groups. That view, however, has been challenged in recent decades (see below).
Some innovations encompassing all South Slavic languages are shared with the Eastern Slavic group, but not the Western Slavic. These include:
- Consistent application of Slavic second palatalization before Proto-Slavic *v
- Loss of *d and *t before Proto-Slavic *l
- Merger of Proto-Slavic *ś (resulting from the second and third palatalization) with *s
This is illustrated in the following table:
Late Proto-Slavic | South Slavic | West Slavic | East Slavic | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
reconstruction | meaning | Old Church Slavonic | Slovene | Serbo-Croatian | Bulgarian | Macedonian | Czech | Slovak | Polish | Belarusian | Russian | Ukrainian |
*gvězda | star | звѣзда | zvezda | zv(ij)ézda зв(иј)е́зда | звезда | ѕвезда | hvězda | hviezda | gwiazda | зорка, звязда | звезда (звѣзда) | зірка |
*květъ | flower, bloom | цвѣтъ | cvet | cv(ij)ȇt цв(иј)е̑т | цвете | цвет | květ | kvet | kwiat | кветка, цвет | цветок, цвет | цвіт, квітка |
*ordlo | plough | рало | ralo | rȁlo ра̏ло | рало | рало | rádlo | radlo | radło | арала | орало, рало | орало, рало |
*vьśь | all | вьсь | ves | sȁv са̏в | вси | сиот | vše | všetok | wszystkie | усе, увесь | все, весь | всі, весь |
Several isoglosses have been identified which are thought to represent exclusive common innovations in the South Slavic language group. They are prevalently phonological in character, whereas morphological and syntactical isoglosses are much fewer in number. Sussex & Cubberly (2006:43–44) list the following phonological isoglosses:
- Merger of yers into schwa-like sound, which became /a/ in Serbo-Croatian, or split according to the retained hard/soft quality of the preceding consonant into /o e/ (Macedonian), or /ə e/ (Bulgarian)
- Proto-Slavic *ę > /e/
- Proto-Slavic *y > /i/, merging with the reflex of Proto-Slavic *i
- Proto-Slavic syllabic liquids *r̥ and *l̥ were retained, but *l̥ was subsequently lost in all the daughter languages with different outputs (> /u/ in Serbo-Croatian, > vowel+/l/ or /l/+vowel in Slovene, Bulgarian and Macedonian), and *r̥ became [ər/rə] in Bulgarian. This development was identical to the loss of yer after a liquid consonant.
- Hardening of palatals and dental affricates; e.g. š' > š, č' > č, c' > c.
- South Slavic form of liquid metathesis (CoRC > CRaC, CoLC > CLaC etc.)
Most of these are not exclusive in character, however, and are shared with some languages of the Eastern and Western Slavic language groups (in particular, Central Slovakian dialects). On that basis, Matasović (2008) argues that South Slavic exists strictly as a geographical grouping, not forming a true genetic clade; in other words, there was never a proto-South Slavic language or a period in which all South Slavic dialects exhibited an exclusive set of extensive phonological, morphological or lexical changes (isoglosses) peculiar to them. Furthermore, Matasović argues, there was never a period of cultural or political unity in which Proto-South-Slavic could have existed during which Common South Slavic innovations could have occurred. Several South-Slavic-only lexical and morphological patterns which have been proposed have been postulated to represent common Slavic archaisms, or are shared with some Slovakian or Ukrainian dialects.[citation needed]
The South Slavic dialects form a dialectal continuum stretching from today's southern Austria to southeast Bulgaria. On the level of dialectology, they are divided into Western South Slavic (Slovene and Serbo-Croatian dialects) and Eastern South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian dialects); these represent separate migrations into the Balkans and were once separated by intervening Hungarian, Romanian, and Albanian populations; as these populations were assimilated, Eastern and Western South Slavic fused with Torlakian as a transitional dialect.[citation needed] On the other hand, the breakup of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, followed by formation of nation-states in the 19th and 20th centuries, led to the development and codification of standard languages. Standard Slovene, Bulgarian, and Macedonian are based on distinct dialects. The Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian are based on the same dialect (Shtokavian). Thus, in most cases national and ethnic borders do not coincide with dialectal boundaries.
Note: Due to the differing political status of languages/dialects and different historical contexts, the classifications are arbitrary to some degree.
Dialectal classification
This section does not cite any sources.(August 2022) |
- South Slavic
- Eastern South Slavic
- Bulgarian dialects
- Eastern Bulgarian dialects
- Western Bulgarian dialects
- Macedonian dialects
- Northern Macedonian dialects
- Western Macedonian dialects
- Southeastern Macedonian dialects
- Bulgarian dialects
- Transitional South Slavic (Torlakian)
- Transitional Bulgarian dialects in western Bulgaria
- Gora dialect in southern Kosovo, western North Macedonia and northeast Albania
- Prizren-Timok dialect in southeast Serbia and eastern Kosovo
- Karashevian dialect in western Romania
- Western South Slavic [ru]
- Shtokavian dialects (Serbo-Croatian)
- Šumadija–Vojvodina dialect (Ekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): Serbia
- Smederevo–Vršac dialect (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): east-central Serbia
- (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): north Kosovo, eastern central Serbia
- Zeta-Raška dialect (Ijekavian, Old-Shtokavian), in south and east Montenegro and southwest Serbia
- Eastern Herzegovinian dialect (Ijekavian, Neo-Shtokavian), Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro
- (Ijekavian, Old-Shtokavian), in central and northern Bosnia
- Slavonian dialect (mixed yat, Old-Shtokavian), in eastern Croatia
- Younger Ikavian dialect (Ikavian) with 3 subdialects — Dalmatian, Danubian (Bunjevac speech), and Littoral-Lika: in Dalmatia, central Bosnia, northern Serbia, southern Hungary (incl. Budapest)
- Prizren-Timok dialect (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian), in southeast Serbia and south Kosovo
- Chakavian dialects
- Buzet dialect: Croatia
- Northern Chakavian dialect: Croatia
- Central Chakavian dialect
- Southern Chakavian dialect: Croatia
- Southeastern Chakavian dialect
- Southwestern Istrian dialect: Croatia
- : Croatia
- Kajkavian dialects, in Croatia
- Gora dialect [hr]
- Slovene dialects
- Littoral Slovene dialect: Primorsko; west Slovenia and Adriatic
- Rovte Slovene dialect: Rovtarsko; between Littoral and Carniolan
- Upper and Lower Carniolan dialect: Gorenjsko and Dolenjsko; central; basis of Standard Slovene
- Styrian dialect: Štajersko; eastern Slovenia
- Pannonian or Prekmurje Slovene dialect: Panonsko; far eastern Slovenia
- Carinthian dialect: Koroško; far north and northwest Slovenia
- Resian dialect: Rozajansko; Italy, west of Carinthian
- Other
- Burgenland Croatian (mixed), minority in Austria and Hungary
- Shtokavian dialects (Serbo-Croatian)
- Eastern South Slavic
Eastern South Slavic languages
This section needs additional citations for verification.(August 2022) |
The dialects that form the eastern group of South Slavic, spoken mostly in Bulgaria and Macedonia and adjacent areas in neighbouring countries (such as the Bessarabian Bulgarians in Ukraine), share a number of characteristics that set them apart from other Slavic languages:
- the existence of a definite article (e.g. книга, book – книгата, the book, време, time – времето, the time)
- a near-complete lack of noun cases
- the lack of a verb infinitive
- the formation of comparative forms of adjectives formed with the prefix по- (e.g. добър, по-добър (Bulg.)/добар, подобар (Maced.) – good, better)
- a future tense formed by the present form of the verb preceded by ще/ќе
- the existence of a renarrative mood (e.g. Той ме видял. (Bulg.)/Тој ме видел. (Maced.) – He supposedly saw me. Compare with Той ме видя./Тој ме виде. – He saw me.)
Bulgarian and Macedonian share some of their unusual characteristics with other languages in the Balkans, notably Greek and Albanian (see Balkan sprachbund).
Bulgarian dialects
- Eastern Bulgarian dialects[citation needed]
- Western Bulgarian dialects (includes Torlakian dialects)[citation needed]
Macedonian dialects
- Southeastern Macedonian dialects[citation needed]
- Northern Macedonian (including three Torlakian dialects)[citation needed]
- Western Macedonian dialects[citation needed]
Torlakian dialect in Serbian
- Torlakian dialects in southeast Serbia are only spoken and unstandardized, as Serbian literary language only recognizes the Shtokavian form (as other Serbo-Croatian languages)[citation needed]
Transitional South Slavic languages
Torlakian dialects
Torlakian dialects are spoken in southeastern Serbia, northern North Macedonia, western Bulgaria, southeastern Kosovo, and pockets of western Romania; it is considered transitional between the Western and Eastern groups of South Slavic languages. Torlakian is thought to fit together with Bulgarian and Macedonian into the Balkan sprachbund, an area of linguistic convergence caused by long-term contact rather than genetic relation. Because of this some researchers tend to classify it as Southeast Slavic.
Western South Slavic languages
History
Each of these primary and secondary dialectal units breaks down into subdialects and accentological isoglosses by region. In the past (and currently, in isolated areas), it was not uncommon for individual villages to have their own words and phrases. However, during the 20th century the local dialects have been influenced by Štokavian standards through mass media and public education and much "local speech" has been lost (primarily in areas with larger populations). With the breakup of Yugoslavia, a rise in national awareness has caused individuals to modify their speech according to newly established standard-language guidelines. The wars have caused large migrations, changing the ethnic (and dialectal) picture of some areas—especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but also in central Croatia and Serbia (Vojvodina in particular). In some areas, it is unclear whether location or ethnicity is the dominant factor in the dialect of the speaker. Because of this the speech patterns of some communities and regions are in a state of flux, and it is difficult to determine which dialects will die out entirely. Further research over the next few decades will be necessary to determine the changes made in the dialectical distribution of this language group.[citation needed]
Shtokavian dialects
The eastern Herzegovinian dialect is the basis of the Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian.
Chakavian dialects
Chakavian is spoken in the western, central, and southern parts of Croatia—mainly in Istria, the Kvarner Gulf, Dalmatia and inland Croatia (Gacka and Pokupje, for example). The Chakavian reflex of proto-Slavic yat is i or sometimes e (rarely as (i)je), or mixed (Ekavian–Ikavian). Many dialects of Chakavian preserved significant number of Dalmatian words, but also have many loanwords from Venetian, Italian, Greek and other Mediterranean languages.[citation needed]
Example: Ča je, je, tako je vavik bilo, ča će bit, će bit, a nekako će već bit!
Burgenland Croatian
This dialect is spoken primarily in the federal state of Burgenland in Austria and nearby areas in Vienna, Slovakia, and Hungary by descendants of Croats who migrated there during the 16th century. This dialect (or family of dialects) differs from standard Croatian, since it has been heavily influenced by German and Hungarian. It has properties of all three major dialectal groups in Croatia, since the migrants did not all come from the same area, but the linguistic standard is based on the Chakavian dialect.
Kajkavian dialects
Kajkavian is mostly spoken in northern and northwest Croatia near the Hungarian and Slovene borders—chiefly around the towns of Zagreb, Varaždin, Čakovec, Koprivnica, Petrinja, Delnice and so on. Its reflex of yat is primarily /e/, rarely diphthongal ije). This differs from that of the Ekavian accent; many Kajkavian dialects distinguish a closed e—nearly ae (from yat)—and an open e (from the original e). It lacks several palatals (ć, lj, nj, dž) found in the Shtokavian dialect, and has some loanwords from the nearby Slovene dialects and German (chiefly in towns).[citation needed]
Example: Kak je, tak je; tak je navek bilo, kak bu tak bu, a bu vre nekak kak bu!
Slovene dialects
Slovene is mainly spoken in Slovenia. Spoken Slovene has numerous dialects, but there is no consensus on how many; estimates range from 7 to 50. The lowest estimate refers to the language's seven commonly recognized dialect groups, without subdividing any of them. Some of the seven groups are more heterogeneous than others, and the higher estimates reflect the varying criteria that have been used to differentiate dialects and subdialects. Slovenian dialects can be so different from each other that a speaker of one dialect may have a very difficult time understanding a speaker of another, particularly if their dialects belong to different groups. Some dialects spoken in southern Slovenia transition into Chakavian or Kajkavian Serbo-Croatian, while the transition from eastern dialects to Kajkavian is general, with cases of essentially the same linguistic variety spoken on both sides of the border (this is particularly true for the upper course of the Kupa and Sutla rivers).[citation needed]
Comparison
The table below compares grammatical and phonological innovations. The similarity of Kajkavian and Slovene is apparent.[citation needed]
Slovene | Kajkavian | Chakavian | Shtokavian | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Acute > neoacute nonfinally | Most dialects | No | No | No |
Loss of Proto-Slavic tone | Some dialects | No | No | Neoshtokavian |
u- > vu- | Some dialects | Yes | No | No |
ǫ > o | Yes | Yes | No | No |
-ojo > -o in instrumental singular | Yes | Yes | No | No |
ć > č | Most dialects | Yes | No | No |
Neocircumflex | Yes | Yes | No | No |
Loss of vocative | Yes | Yes | Some dialects | No |
Final devoicing | Most dialects | Yes | Yes | No |
đ > j | Yes | Yes | Yes | No |
žV > rV | Yes | Yes | Yes | Western |
Final -m > -n | Some dialects | No | Yes | No |
ľ, ň > l, n | Most dialects | No | Yes | No |
jd, jt > đ, ć | No | No | Yes | Yes |
ř > r | No | No | Yes | Yes |
ə > a | No | No | Yes | Yes |
čr > cr | No | No | No | Yes |
Dat/loc/ins plural -ma/-u (from dual) | No | No | No | Yes |
Grammar
Eastern–Western division
In broad terms, the Eastern dialects of South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian) differ most from the Western dialects in the following ways:
- The Eastern dialects have almost completely lost their noun declensions, and have become entirely analytic.
- The Eastern dialects have developed definite-article suffixes similar to the other languages in the Balkan sprachbund.
- The Eastern dialects have lost the infinitive; thus, the first-person singular (for Bulgarian) or the third-person singular (for Macedonian) are considered the main part of a verb. Sentences which would require an infinitive in other languages are constructed through a clause in Bulgarian, искам да ходя (iskam da hodya), "I want to go" (literally, "I want that I go").
Apart from these three main areas there are several smaller, significant differences:
- The Western dialects have three genders in both singular and plural (Slovene has dual—see below), while the Eastern dialects only have them in the singular—for example, Serbian on (he), ona (she), ono (it), oni (they, masc), one (they, fem), ona (they, neut); the Bulgarian te (they) and Macedonian тие (tie, 'they') covers the entire plural.
- Inheriting a generalization of another demonstrative as a base form for the third-person pronoun which already occurred in late Proto-Slavic, standard literary Bulgarian (like Old Church Slavonic) does not use the Slavic "on-/ov-" as base forms like on, ona, ono, oni (he, she, it, they), and ovaj, ovde (this, here), but uses "to-/t-"based pronouns like toy, tya, to, te, and tozi, tuk (it only retains onzi – "that" and its derivatives). Western Bulgarian dialects and Macedonian have "ov-/on-" pronouns, and sometimes use them interchangeably.
- All dialects of Serbo-Croatian contain the concept of "any" – e.g. Serbian neko "someone"; niko "no one"; iko "anyone". All others lack the last, and make do with some- or no- constructions instead.
Divisions within Western dialects
- While Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian Shtokavian dialects have basically the same grammar, its usage is very diverse. While all three languages are relatively highly inflected, the further east one goes the more likely it is that analytic forms are used – if not spoken, at least in the written language.[citation needed] A very basic example is:
- Croatian – hoću ići – "I want – to go"
- Serbian – hoću da idem – "I want – that – I go"
- Slovene has retained the proto-Slavic dual number (which means that it has nine personal pronouns in the third person) for both nouns and verbs.[citation needed] For example:
- nouns: volk (wolf) → volkova (two wolves) → volkovi (some wolves)
- verbs: hodim (I walk) → hodiva (the two of us walk) → hodimo (we walk)
Divisions within Eastern dialects
- In Macedonian, the perfect is largely based on the verb "to have" (as in other Balkan languages like Greek and Albanian, and in English), as opposed to the verb "to be", which is used as the auxiliary in all other Slavic languages (see also Macedonian verbs):[citation needed]
- Macedonian – imam videno – I have seen (imam – "to have")
- Bulgarian – vidyal sum – I have seen (sum – "to be")
- In Macedonian there are three types of definite article (base definite form, definite noun near the speaker and definite noun far from the speaker).[citation needed]
- дете (dete, 'а child')
- детето (deteto, 'the child')
- детево (detevo, 'this child [near me]')
- детено (deteno, 'that child [over there]')
Writing systems
Languages to the west of Serbia use the Latin script, whereas those to the east and south use Cyrillic. Serbian officially uses the Cyrillic script, though commonly Latin and Cyrillic are used equally. Most newspapers are written in Cyrillic and most magazines are in Latin; books written by Serbian authors are written in Cyrillic, whereas books translated from foreign authors are usually in Latin, other than languages that already use Cyrillic, most notably Russian. On television, writing as part of a television programme is usually in Cyrillic, but advertisements are usually in Latin. The division is partly based on religion – Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Macedonia (which use Cyrillic) are Orthodox countries, whereas Croatia and Slovenia (which use Latin) are Catholic. The Bosnian language, used by the Muslim Bosniaks, also uses Latin, but in the past used Bosnian Cyrillic. The Glagolitic alphabet was also used in the Middle Ages (most notably in Bulgaria, Macedonia and Croatia), but gradually disappeared.[citation needed]
See also
- Abstand and ausbau languages
- Comparison of standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian
- Language secessionism in Serbo-Croatian
- Mutual intelligibility
- Outline of Slavic history and culture
- Pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language
- South Slavic dialect continuum
- Yat
Notes
- Friedman, Victor (1999). Linguistic emblems and emblematic languages: on language as flag in the Balkans. Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 1. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures. p. 8. OCLC 46734277.
- Alexander, Ronelle (2000). In honor of diversity: the linguistic resources of the Balkans. Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 2. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures. p. 4. OCLC 47186443.
- Roland Sussex (2006). The Slavic languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-521-22315-7.
- Cited after Matasović (2008:59, 143)
- Kordić 2010, p. 75.
- Friedman, Victor (2003). "Language in Macedonia as an Identity Construction Site". In Brian, D. Joseph; et al. (eds.). When Languages Collide: Perspectives on Language Conflict, Language Competition, and Language Coexistence. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. pp. 261–262. OCLC 50123480.
- Kordić 2010, pp. 77–90.
- Bunčić, Daniel (2008). "Die (Re-)Nationalisierung der serbokroatischen Standards" [The (Re-)Nationalisation of Serbo-Croatian Standards]. In Kempgen, Sebastian (ed.). Deutsche Beiträge zum 14. Internationalen Slavistenkongress, Ohrid, 2008. Welt der Slaven (in German). Munich: Otto Sagner. p. 93. OCLC 238795822.
- Gröschel, Bernhard (2009). Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit [Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics: With a Bibliography of the Post-Yugoslav Language Dispute]. Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics; vol 34 (in German). Munich: Lincom Europa. p. 265. ISBN 978-3-929075-79-3. LCCN 2009473660. OCLC 428012015. OL 15295665W.
- Кочев (Kochev), Иван (Ivan) (2001). Български диалектен атлас (Bulgarian dialect atlas) (in Bulgarian). София: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. ISBN 954-90344-1-0. OCLC 48368312.
- Fortson, Benjamin W. (2009-08-31). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction Blackwell textbooks in linguistics. John Wiley and Sons. p. 431. ISBN 978-1-4051-8896-8. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
- van Wijk, Nicolaas (1956). Les Langues Slaves [The Slavic Languages] (in French) (2nd ed.). Mouton & Co - 's-Gravenhage.
- Balkan Syntax and Semantics, John Benjamins Publishing, 2004, ISBN 158811502X, The typology of Balkan evidentiality and areal linguistics, Victor Friedman, p. 123.
- Kordić, Snježana (2003). "Glotonim "srbohrvaški jezik" glede na "srbski, hrvaški, bosanski, črnogorski"" [The glotonym "Serbo-Croatian" vs. "Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin"] (PDF). Slavistična revija (in Slovenian). 51 (3): 355–364. ISSN 0350-6894. SSRN 3433071. CROSBI 430280. COBISS 23508578. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
- Sussex, Roland & Paul Cubberly. 2006. The Slavic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 502–503.
- Lencek, Rado L. 1982. The Structure and History of the Slovene Language. Columbus, OH: Slavica.
- Logar, Tine & Jakob Rigler. 1986. Karta slovenskih narečij. Ljubljana: Geodetski zavod SRS.
- Sussex, Roland & Paul V. Cubberley. 2006. The Slavic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 502.
- Note that some remnants of cases do still exist in Bulgarian – see here.
- In Macedonian, these are especially well-developed, also taking on a role similar to demonstrative pronouns:
- Bulgarian : stol – "chair" → stolat – "the chair"
- Macedonian : stol – "chair" → stolot – "the chair" → stolov – "this chair here" → stolon – "that chair there". As well as these, Macedonian also has a separate set of demonstratives: ovoj stol – "this chair"; onoj stol – "that chair".
- In Bulgarian, more complex constructions such as "koyto i da bilo" ("whoever it may be" ≈ "anyone") can be used if the distinction is necessary.
- This distinction is true for the whole Slavic world: the Orthodox Russia, Ukraine and Belarus also use Cyrillic, as does Rusyn (Eastern Orthodox/Eastern Catholic), whereas the Catholic Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia use Latin, as does Sorbian. Romania and Moldova, which are not Slavic but are Orthodox, also used Cyrillic until 1860 and 1989, respectively, and it is still used in Transdnistria.
Sources
- Kordić, Snježana (2010). Jezik i nacionalizam [Language and Nationalism] (PDF). Rotulus Universitas (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Durieux. p. 430. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3467646. ISBN 978-953-188-311-5. LCCN 2011520778. OCLC 729837512. OL 15270636W. CROSBI 475567. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2012. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
- Matasović, Ranko (2008), Poredbenopovijesna gramatika hrvatskoga jezika (in Serbo-Croatian), Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, ISBN 978-953-150-840-7
- Sussex, Roland; Cubberly, Paul (2006), The Slavic languages, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-511-24204-5
- Edward Stankiewicz (1986). The Slavic Languages: Unity in Diversity. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-009904-1.
- Mila Dimitrova-Vulchanova (1998). Formal Approaches to South Slavic Languages. Linguistics Department, NTNU.
- Mirjana N. Dedaic; Mirjana Miskovic-Lukovic (2010). South Slavic Discourse Particles. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-5601-0.
- Mila Dimitrova-Vulchanova; Lars Hellan (15 March 1999). Topics in South Slavic Syntax and Semantics. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-8386-3.
- Radovan Lučić (2002). Lexical norm and national language: lexicography and language policy in South-Slavic languages after 1989. Verlag Otto Sagner. ISBN 9783876908236.
- Motoki Nomachi (2011). The Grammar of Possessivity in South Slavic Languages: Synchronic and Diachronic Perspectives. Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University. ISBN 978-4-938637-66-8.
- Steven Franks; Brian D. Joseph; Vrinda Chidambaram (1 January 2009). A Linguist's Linguist: Studies in South Slavic Linguistics in Honor of E. Wayles Browne. Slavica Publishers. ISBN 978-0-89357-364-5.
- A. A. Barentsen; R. Sprenger; M. G. M. Tielemans (1982). South Slavic and Balkan Linguistics. Rodopi. ISBN 90-6203-634-1.
- Anita Peti-Stantic; Mateusz-Milan Stanojevic; Goranka Antunovic (2015). Language Varieties Between Norms and Attitudes: South Slavic Perspectives : Proceedings from the 2013 CALS Conference. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-66256-4.
Further reading
- Тохтасьев, С.Р. (1998), "Древнейшие свидетельства славянского языка на Балканах. Основы балканского языкознания. Языки балканского региона", Ч, 2
- Golubović, J. and Gooskens, C. (2015), "Mutual intelligibility between West and South Slavic languages", Russian Linguistics, 39 (3): 351–373, doi:10.1007/s11185-015-9150-9, S2CID 67848448
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Henrik Birnbaum (1976). On the significance of the second South Slavic influence for the evolution of the Russian literary language. Peter de Rider Press. ISBN 978-90-316-0047-2.
- Masha Belyavski-Frank (2003). The Balkan conditional in South Slavic: a semantic and syntactic study. Sagner. ISBN 9783876908519.
- Patrice Marie Rubadeau (1996). A descriptive study of clitics in four Slavic languages: Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian, Polish, and Czech. University of Michigan. ISBN 9780591195705.
External links
This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources South Slavic languages news newspapers books scholar JSTOR August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this message The South Slavic languages are one of three branches of the Slavic languages There are approximately 30 million speakers mainly in the Balkans These are separated geographically from speakers of the other two Slavic branches West and East by a belt of German Hungarian and Romanian speakers South SlavicGeographic distributionSoutheast EuropeLinguistic classificationIndo EuropeanBalto SlavicSlavicSouth SlavicSubdivisionsEastern South Slavic Western South Slavic ru Language codesISO 639 5 a href https iso639 3 sil org code zls class extiw title iso639 3 zls zls a ISO 639 3 Glottologsout3147 Countries where a South Slavic language is the national languageHistoryThe first South Slavic language to be written also the first attested Slavic language was the variety of the Eastern South Slavic spoken in Thessaloniki now called Old Church Slavonic in the ninth century It is retained as a liturgical language in Slavic Orthodox churches in the form of various local Church Slavonic traditions citation needed ClassificationBalto Slavic language family tree The South Slavic languages constitute a dialect continuum Serbian Croatian Bosnian and Montenegrin constitute a single dialect within this continuum South Slavic Eastern South Slavic Bulgarian ISO 639 1 code bg ISO 639 2 code bul SIL code bul Linguasphere 53 AAA hb Macedonian ISO 639 1 code mk ISO 639 2 B code mac ISO 639 2 T code mkd SIL code mkd Linguasphere 53 AAA ha Old Church Slavonic extinct ISO 639 1 code cu ISO 639 2 code chu SIL code chu Linguasphere 53 AAA a Transitional South Slavic Torlakian Western South Slavic ru Slovene ISO 639 1 code sl ISO 639 2 code slv ISO 639 3 code slv Linguasphere 53 AAA f Kajkavian ISO 639 3 code kjv Chakavian ISO 639 3 code ckm Serbo Croatian Shtokavian ISO 639 1 code sh ISO 639 2 3 code hbs SIL code scr Linguasphere 53 AAA g There are four national standard languages based on the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect Serbian ISO 639 1 code sr ISO 639 2 3 code srp SIL code srp Croatian ISO 639 1 code hr ISO 639 2 3 code hrv SIL code hrv Bosnian ISO 639 1 code bs ISO 639 2 3 code bos SIL code bos Montenegrin ISO 639 2 3 code cnr SIL code cnr Linguistic prehistory The Slavic languages are part of the Balto Slavic group which belongs to the Indo European language family The South Slavic languages have been considered a genetic node in Slavic studies defined by a set of phonological morphological and lexical innovations isoglosses which separate it from the Western and Eastern Slavic groups That view however has been challenged in recent decades see below Some innovations encompassing all South Slavic languages are shared with the Eastern Slavic group but not the Western Slavic These include Consistent application of Slavic second palatalization before Proto Slavic v Loss of d and t before Proto Slavic l Merger of Proto Slavic s resulting from the second and third palatalization with s This is illustrated in the following table Late Proto Slavic South Slavic West Slavic East Slavicreconstruction meaning Old Church Slavonic Slovene Serbo Croatian Bulgarian Macedonian Czech Slovak Polish Belarusian Russian Ukrainian gvezda star zvѣzda zvezda zv ij ezda zv iј e zda zvezda ѕvezda hvezda hviezda gwiazda zorka zvyazda zvezda zvѣzda zirka kvet flower bloom cvѣt cvet cv ij ȇt cv iј e t cvete cvet kvet kvet kwiat kvetka cvet cvetok cvet cvit kvitka ordlo plough ralo ralo rȁlo ra lo ralo ralo radlo radlo radlo arala oralo ralo oralo ralo vs all vs ves sȁv sa v vsi siot vse vsetok wszystkie use uves vse ves vsi ves Several isoglosses have been identified which are thought to represent exclusive common innovations in the South Slavic language group They are prevalently phonological in character whereas morphological and syntactical isoglosses are much fewer in number Sussex amp Cubberly 2006 43 44 list the following phonological isoglosses Merger of yers into schwa like sound which became a in Serbo Croatian or split according to the retained hard soft quality of the preceding consonant into o e Macedonian or e e Bulgarian Proto Slavic e gt e Proto Slavic y gt i merging with the reflex of Proto Slavic i Proto Slavic syllabic liquids r and l were retained but l was subsequently lost in all the daughter languages with different outputs gt u in Serbo Croatian gt vowel l or l vowel in Slovene Bulgarian and Macedonian and r became er re in Bulgarian This development was identical to the loss of yer after a liquid consonant Hardening of palatals and dental affricates e g s gt s c gt c c gt c South Slavic form of liquid metathesis CoRC gt CRaC CoLC gt CLaC etc Most of these are not exclusive in character however and are shared with some languages of the Eastern and Western Slavic language groups in particular Central Slovakian dialects On that basis Matasovic 2008 argues that South Slavic exists strictly as a geographical grouping not forming a true genetic clade in other words there was never a proto South Slavic language or a period in which all South Slavic dialects exhibited an exclusive set of extensive phonological morphological or lexical changes isoglosses peculiar to them Furthermore Matasovic argues there was never a period of cultural or political unity in which Proto South Slavic could have existed during which Common South Slavic innovations could have occurred Several South Slavic only lexical and morphological patterns which have been proposed have been postulated to represent common Slavic archaisms or are shared with some Slovakian or Ukrainian dialects citation needed The South Slavic dialects form a dialectal continuum stretching from today s southern Austria to southeast Bulgaria On the level of dialectology they are divided into Western South Slavic Slovene and Serbo Croatian dialects and Eastern South Slavic Bulgarian and Macedonian dialects these represent separate migrations into the Balkans and were once separated by intervening Hungarian Romanian and Albanian populations as these populations were assimilated Eastern and Western South Slavic fused with Torlakian as a transitional dialect citation needed On the other hand the breakup of the Ottoman and Austro Hungarian Empires followed by formation of nation states in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the development and codification of standard languages Standard Slovene Bulgarian and Macedonian are based on distinct dialects The Bosnian Croatian Montenegrin and Serbian standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo Croatian are based on the same dialect Shtokavian Thus in most cases national and ethnic borders do not coincide with dialectal boundaries Note Due to the differing political status of languages dialects and different historical contexts the classifications are arbitrary to some degree Dialectal classification South Slavic dialect continuum with major dialect groupsThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this message South Slavic Eastern South Slavic Bulgarian dialects Eastern Bulgarian dialects Western Bulgarian dialects Macedonian dialects Northern Macedonian dialects Western Macedonian dialects Southeastern Macedonian dialects Transitional South Slavic Torlakian Transitional Bulgarian dialects in western Bulgaria Gora dialect in southern Kosovo western North Macedonia and northeast Albania Prizren Timok dialect in southeast Serbia and eastern Kosovo Karashevian dialect in western Romania Western South Slavic ru Shtokavian dialects Serbo Croatian Sumadija Vojvodina dialect Ekavian Neo Shtokavian Serbia Smederevo Vrsac dialect Ekavian Old Shtokavian east central Serbia Ekavian Old Shtokavian north Kosovo eastern central Serbia Zeta Raska dialect Ijekavian Old Shtokavian in south and east Montenegro and southwest Serbia Eastern Herzegovinian dialect Ijekavian Neo Shtokavian Croatia Bosnia Serbia Montenegro Ijekavian Old Shtokavian in central and northern Bosnia Slavonian dialect mixed yat Old Shtokavian in eastern Croatia Younger Ikavian dialect Ikavian with 3 subdialects Dalmatian Danubian Bunjevac speech and Littoral Lika in Dalmatia central Bosnia northern Serbia southern Hungary incl Budapest Prizren Timok dialect Ekavian Old Shtokavian in southeast Serbia and south Kosovo Chakavian dialects Buzet dialect Croatia Northern Chakavian dialect Croatia Central Chakavian dialect Southern Chakavian dialect Croatia Southeastern Chakavian dialect Southwestern Istrian dialect Croatia Croatia Kajkavian dialects in Croatia Gora dialect hr Slovene dialects Prekmurje Slovene Lutheran New Testament the Nouvi Zakon 1770s Littoral Slovene dialect Primorsko west Slovenia and Adriatic Rovte Slovene dialect Rovtarsko between Littoral and Carniolan Upper and Lower Carniolan dialect Gorenjsko and Dolenjsko central basis of Standard Slovene Styrian dialect Stajersko eastern Slovenia Pannonian or Prekmurje Slovene dialect Panonsko far eastern Slovenia Carinthian dialect Korosko far north and northwest Slovenia Resian dialect Rozajansko Italy west of Carinthian Other Burgenland Croatian mixed minority in Austria and HungaryEastern South Slavic languagesThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources South Slavic languages news newspapers books scholar JSTOR August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this message Areas where Eastern South Slavic dialects are spoken by a majority of speakers by a minority Map of the big yus ǫ isoglosses in Eastern South Slavic and the eastern part of the transitional Torlakian dialects according to the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences atlas from 2001 Pronunciation of man and tooth derived from proto words zǫb mǫz on the map mɤʃ zɤp see zb and zab maʃ zap see zab muʃ zup see zub and zub m ɒ ʃ z ɒ p mɔʃ zɔp see zob maz m ae ʃ z ae p see mezczyzna mɤmʃ zɤmp mamʃ zamp m ɒ m ʃ z ɒ m p see zab The dialects that form the eastern group of South Slavic spoken mostly in Bulgaria and Macedonia and adjacent areas in neighbouring countries such as the Bessarabian Bulgarians in Ukraine share a number of characteristics that set them apart from other Slavic languages the existence of a definite article e g kniga book knigata the book vreme time vremeto the time a near complete lack of noun cases the lack of a verb infinitive the formation of comparative forms of adjectives formed with the prefix po e g dobr po dobr Bulg dobar podobar Maced good better a future tense formed by the present form of the verb preceded by she ќe the existence of a renarrative mood e g Toj me vidyal Bulg Toј me videl Maced He supposedly saw me Compare with Toj me vidya Toј me vide He saw me Bulgarian and Macedonian share some of their unusual characteristics with other languages in the Balkans notably Greek and Albanian see Balkan sprachbund Bulgarian dialects Eastern Bulgarian dialects citation needed Western Bulgarian dialects includes Torlakian dialects citation needed Macedonian dialects Southeastern Macedonian dialects citation needed Northern Macedonian including three Torlakian dialects citation needed Western Macedonian dialects citation needed Torlakian dialect in Serbian Torlakian dialects in southeast Serbia are only spoken and unstandardized as Serbian literary language only recognizes the Shtokavian form as other Serbo Croatian languages citation needed Transitional South Slavic languagesTorlakian dialects Torlakian dialects are spoken in southeastern Serbia northern North Macedonia western Bulgaria southeastern Kosovo and pockets of western Romania it is considered transitional between the Western and Eastern groups of South Slavic languages Torlakian is thought to fit together with Bulgarian and Macedonian into the Balkan sprachbund an area of linguistic convergence caused by long term contact rather than genetic relation Because of this some researchers tend to classify it as Southeast Slavic Western South Slavic languagesHistory Each of these primary and secondary dialectal units breaks down into subdialects and accentological isoglosses by region In the past and currently in isolated areas it was not uncommon for individual villages to have their own words and phrases However during the 20th century the local dialects have been influenced by Stokavian standards through mass media and public education and much local speech has been lost primarily in areas with larger populations With the breakup of Yugoslavia a rise in national awareness has caused individuals to modify their speech according to newly established standard language guidelines The wars have caused large migrations changing the ethnic and dialectal picture of some areas especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina but also in central Croatia and Serbia Vojvodina in particular In some areas it is unclear whether location or ethnicity is the dominant factor in the dialect of the speaker Because of this the speech patterns of some communities and regions are in a state of flux and it is difficult to determine which dialects will die out entirely Further research over the next few decades will be necessary to determine the changes made in the dialectical distribution of this language group citation needed Shtokavian dialects The eastern Herzegovinian dialect is the basis of the Bosnian Croatian Montenegrin and Serbian standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo Croatian Chakavian dialects Chakavian is spoken in the western central and southern parts of Croatia mainly in Istria the Kvarner Gulf Dalmatia and inland Croatia Gacka and Pokupje for example The Chakavian reflex of proto Slavic yat is i or sometimes e rarely as i je or mixed Ekavian Ikavian Many dialects of Chakavian preserved significant number of Dalmatian words but also have many loanwords from Venetian Italian Greek and other Mediterranean languages citation needed Example Ca je je tako je vavik bilo ca ce bit ce bit a nekako ce vec bit Burgenland Croatian This dialect is spoken primarily in the federal state of Burgenland in Austria and nearby areas in Vienna Slovakia and Hungary by descendants of Croats who migrated there during the 16th century This dialect or family of dialects differs from standard Croatian since it has been heavily influenced by German and Hungarian It has properties of all three major dialectal groups in Croatia since the migrants did not all come from the same area but the linguistic standard is based on the Chakavian dialect Kajkavian dialects Kajkavian is mostly spoken in northern and northwest Croatia near the Hungarian and Slovene borders chiefly around the towns of Zagreb Varazdin Cakovec Koprivnica Petrinja Delnice and so on Its reflex of yat is primarily e rarely diphthongal ije This differs from that of the Ekavian accent many Kajkavian dialects distinguish a closed e nearly ae from yat and an open e from the original e It lacks several palatals c lj nj dz found in the Shtokavian dialect and has some loanwords from the nearby Slovene dialects and German chiefly in towns citation needed Example Kak je tak je tak je navek bilo kak bu tak bu a bu vre nekak kak bu Slovene dialects Slovene is mainly spoken in Slovenia Spoken Slovene has numerous dialects but there is no consensus on how many estimates range from 7 to 50 The lowest estimate refers to the language s seven commonly recognized dialect groups without subdividing any of them Some of the seven groups are more heterogeneous than others and the higher estimates reflect the varying criteria that have been used to differentiate dialects and subdialects Slovenian dialects can be so different from each other that a speaker of one dialect may have a very difficult time understanding a speaker of another particularly if their dialects belong to different groups Some dialects spoken in southern Slovenia transition into Chakavian or Kajkavian Serbo Croatian while the transition from eastern dialects to Kajkavian is general with cases of essentially the same linguistic variety spoken on both sides of the border this is particularly true for the upper course of the Kupa and Sutla rivers citation needed Comparison The table below compares grammatical and phonological innovations The similarity of Kajkavian and Slovene is apparent citation needed Western South Slavic isoglosses Slovene Kajkavian Chakavian ShtokavianAcute gt neoacute nonfinally Most dialects No No NoLoss of Proto Slavic tone Some dialects No No Neoshtokavianu gt vu Some dialects Yes No Noǫ gt o Yes Yes No No ojo gt o in instrumental singular Yes Yes No Noc gt c Most dialects Yes No NoNeocircumflex Yes Yes No NoLoss of vocative Yes Yes Some dialects NoFinal devoicing Most dialects Yes Yes Nođ gt j Yes Yes Yes NozV gt rV Yes Yes Yes WesternFinal m gt n Some dialects No Yes Noľ n gt l n Most dialects No Yes Nojd jt gt đ c No No Yes Yesr gt r No No Yes Yese gt a No No Yes Yescr gt cr No No No YesDat loc ins plural ma u from dual No No No YesGrammarEastern Western division In broad terms the Eastern dialects of South Slavic Bulgarian and Macedonian differ most from the Western dialects in the following ways The Eastern dialects have almost completely lost their noun declensions and have become entirely analytic The Eastern dialects have developed definite article suffixes similar to the other languages in the Balkan sprachbund The Eastern dialects have lost the infinitive thus the first person singular for Bulgarian or the third person singular for Macedonian are considered the main part of a verb Sentences which would require an infinitive in other languages are constructed through a clause in Bulgarian iskam da hodya iskam da hodya I want to go literally I want that I go Apart from these three main areas there are several smaller significant differences The Western dialects have three genders in both singular and plural Slovene has dual see below while the Eastern dialects only have them in the singular for example Serbian on he ona she ono it oni they masc one they fem ona they neut the Bulgarian te they and Macedonian tie tie they covers the entire plural Inheriting a generalization of another demonstrative as a base form for the third person pronoun which already occurred in late Proto Slavic standard literary Bulgarian like Old Church Slavonic does not use the Slavic on ov as base forms like on ona ono oni he she it they and ovaj ovde this here but uses to t based pronouns like toy tya to te and tozi tuk it only retains onzi that and its derivatives Western Bulgarian dialects and Macedonian have ov on pronouns and sometimes use them interchangeably All dialects of Serbo Croatian contain the concept of any e g Serbian neko someone niko no one iko anyone All others lack the last and make do with some or no constructions instead Divisions within Western dialects While Serbian Bosnian and Croatian Shtokavian dialects have basically the same grammar its usage is very diverse While all three languages are relatively highly inflected the further east one goes the more likely it is that analytic forms are used if not spoken at least in the written language citation needed A very basic example is Croatian hocu ici I want to go Serbian hocu da idem I want that I go Slovene has retained the proto Slavic dual number which means that it has nine personal pronouns in the third person for both nouns and verbs citation needed For example nouns volk wolf volkova two wolves volkovi some wolves verbs hodim I walk hodiva the two of us walk hodimo we walk Divisions within Eastern dialects In Macedonian the perfect is largely based on the verb to have as in other Balkan languages like Greek and Albanian and in English as opposed to the verb to be which is used as the auxiliary in all other Slavic languages see also Macedonian verbs citation needed Macedonian imam videno I have seen imam to have Bulgarian vidyal sum I have seen sum to be In Macedonian there are three types of definite article base definite form definite noun near the speaker and definite noun far from the speaker citation needed dete dete a child deteto deteto the child detevo detevo this child near me deteno deteno that child over there Writing systemsLanguages to the west of Serbia use the Latin script whereas those to the east and south use Cyrillic Serbian officially uses the Cyrillic script though commonly Latin and Cyrillic are used equally Most newspapers are written in Cyrillic and most magazines are in Latin books written by Serbian authors are written in Cyrillic whereas books translated from foreign authors are usually in Latin other than languages that already use Cyrillic most notably Russian On television writing as part of a television programme is usually in Cyrillic but advertisements are usually in Latin The division is partly based on religion Serbia Montenegro Bulgaria and Macedonia which use Cyrillic are Orthodox countries whereas Croatia and Slovenia which use Latin are Catholic The Bosnian language used by the Muslim Bosniaks also uses Latin but in the past used Bosnian Cyrillic The Glagolitic alphabet was also used in the Middle Ages most notably in Bulgaria Macedonia and Croatia but gradually disappeared citation needed See alsoAbstand and ausbau languages Comparison of standard Bosnian Croatian Montenegrin and Serbian Language secessionism in Serbo Croatian Mutual intelligibility Outline of Slavic history and culture Pluricentric Serbo Croatian language South Slavic dialect continuum YatNotesFriedman Victor 1999 Linguistic emblems and emblematic languages on language as flag in the Balkans Kenneth E Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics vol 1 Columbus Ohio Ohio State University Dept of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures p 8 OCLC 46734277 Alexander Ronelle 2000 In honor of diversity the linguistic resources of the Balkans Kenneth E Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics vol 2 Columbus Ohio Ohio State University Dept of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures p 4 OCLC 47186443 Roland Sussex 2006 The Slavic languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 43 44 ISBN 978 0 521 22315 7 Cited after Matasovic 2008 59 143 Kordic 2010 p 75 Friedman Victor 2003 Language in Macedonia as an Identity Construction Site In Brian D Joseph et al eds When Languages Collide Perspectives on Language Conflict Language Competition and Language Coexistence Columbus Ohio State University Press pp 261 262 OCLC 50123480 Kordic 2010 pp 77 90 Buncic Daniel 2008 Die Re Nationalisierung der serbokroatischen Standards The Re Nationalisation of Serbo Croatian Standards In Kempgen Sebastian ed Deutsche Beitrage zum 14 Internationalen Slavistenkongress Ohrid 2008 Welt der Slaven in German Munich Otto Sagner p 93 OCLC 238795822 Groschel Bernhard 2009 Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit Serbo Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics With a Bibliography of the Post Yugoslav Language Dispute Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics vol 34 in German Munich Lincom Europa p 265 ISBN 978 3 929075 79 3 LCCN 2009473660 OCLC 428012015 OL 15295665W Kochev Kochev Ivan Ivan 2001 Blgarski dialekten atlas Bulgarian dialect atlas in Bulgarian Sofiya Bulgarian Academy of Sciences ISBN 954 90344 1 0 OCLC 48368312 Fortson Benjamin W 2009 08 31 Indo European Language and Culture An Introduction Blackwell textbooks in linguistics John Wiley and Sons p 431 ISBN 978 1 4051 8896 8 Retrieved 2015 11 19 van Wijk Nicolaas 1956 Les Langues Slaves The Slavic Languages in French 2nd ed Mouton amp Co s Gravenhage Balkan Syntax and Semantics John Benjamins Publishing 2004 ISBN 158811502X The typology of Balkan evidentiality and areal linguistics Victor Friedman p 123 Kordic Snjezana 2003 Glotonim srbohrvaski jezik glede na srbski hrvaski bosanski crnogorski The glotonym Serbo Croatian vs Serbian Croatian Bosnian Montenegrin PDF Slavisticna revija in Slovenian 51 3 355 364 ISSN 0350 6894 SSRN 3433071 CROSBI 430280 COBISS 23508578 Archived PDF from the original on 8 August 2012 Retrieved 19 April 2019 Sussex Roland amp Paul Cubberly 2006 The Slavic Languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 502 503 Lencek Rado L 1982 The Structure and History of the Slovene Language Columbus OH Slavica Logar Tine amp Jakob Rigler 1986 Karta slovenskih narecij Ljubljana Geodetski zavod SRS Sussex Roland amp Paul V Cubberley 2006 The Slavic Languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 502 Note that some remnants of cases do still exist in Bulgarian see here In Macedonian these are especially well developed also taking on a role similar to demonstrative pronouns Bulgarian stol chair stolat the chair Macedonian stol chair stolot the chair stolov this chair here stolon that chair there As well as these Macedonian also has a separate set of demonstratives ovoj stol this chair onoj stol that chair In Bulgarian more complex constructions such as koyto i da bilo whoever it may be anyone can be used if the distinction is necessary This distinction is true for the whole Slavic world the Orthodox Russia Ukraine and Belarus also use Cyrillic as does Rusyn Eastern Orthodox Eastern Catholic whereas the Catholic Poland Czech Republic and Slovakia use Latin as does Sorbian Romania and Moldova which are not Slavic but are Orthodox also used Cyrillic until 1860 and 1989 respectively and it is still used in Transdnistria SourcesKordic Snjezana 2010 Jezik i nacionalizam Language and Nationalism PDF Rotulus Universitas in Serbo Croatian Zagreb Durieux p 430 doi 10 2139 ssrn 3467646 ISBN 978 953 188 311 5 LCCN 2011520778 OCLC 729837512 OL 15270636W CROSBI 475567 Archived PDF from the original on 1 June 2012 Retrieved 3 March 2013 Matasovic Ranko 2008 Poredbenopovijesna gramatika hrvatskoga jezika in Serbo Croatian Zagreb Matica hrvatska ISBN 978 953 150 840 7 Sussex Roland Cubberly Paul 2006 The Slavic languages Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 511 24204 5 Edward Stankiewicz 1986 The Slavic Languages Unity in Diversity Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 009904 1 Mila Dimitrova Vulchanova 1998 Formal Approaches to South Slavic Languages Linguistics Department NTNU Mirjana N Dedaic Mirjana Miskovic Lukovic 2010 South Slavic Discourse Particles John Benjamins Publishing ISBN 978 90 272 5601 0 Mila Dimitrova Vulchanova Lars Hellan 15 March 1999 Topics in South Slavic Syntax and Semantics John Benjamins Publishing Company ISBN 978 90 272 8386 3 Radovan Lucic 2002 Lexical norm and national language lexicography and language policy in South Slavic languages after 1989 Verlag Otto Sagner ISBN 9783876908236 Motoki Nomachi 2011 The Grammar of Possessivity in South Slavic Languages Synchronic and Diachronic Perspectives Slavic Research Center Hokkaido University ISBN 978 4 938637 66 8 Steven Franks Brian D Joseph Vrinda Chidambaram 1 January 2009 A Linguist s Linguist Studies in South Slavic Linguistics in Honor of E Wayles Browne Slavica Publishers ISBN 978 0 89357 364 5 A A Barentsen R Sprenger M G M Tielemans 1982 South Slavic and Balkan Linguistics Rodopi ISBN 90 6203 634 1 Anita Peti Stantic Mateusz Milan Stanojevic Goranka Antunovic 2015 Language Varieties Between Norms and Attitudes South Slavic Perspectives Proceedings from the 2013 CALS Conference Peter Lang ISBN 978 3 631 66256 4 Further readingTohtasev S R 1998 Drevnejshie svidetelstva slavyanskogo yazyka na Balkanah Osnovy balkanskogo yazykoznaniya Yazyki balkanskogo regiona Ch 2 Golubovic J and Gooskens C 2015 Mutual intelligibility between West and South Slavic languages Russian Linguistics 39 3 351 373 doi 10 1007 s11185 015 9150 9 S2CID 67848448 a href wiki Template Citation title Template Citation citation a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Henrik Birnbaum 1976 On the significance of the second South Slavic influence for the evolution of the Russian literary language Peter de Rider Press ISBN 978 90 316 0047 2 Masha Belyavski Frank 2003 The Balkan conditional in South Slavic a semantic and syntactic study Sagner ISBN 9783876908519 Patrice Marie Rubadeau 1996 A descriptive study of clitics in four Slavic languages Serbo Croatian Bulgarian Polish and Czech University of Michigan ISBN 9780591195705 External linksWikimedia Commons has media related to South Slavic languages