
The Habsburg monarchy, also known as Habsburg Empire, or Habsburg Realm (/ˈhæpsbɜːrɡ/), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities that were ruled by the House of Habsburg. From the 18th century it is also referred to as the Austrian monarchy (Latin: Monarchia Austriaca) or the Danubian monarchy.
Habsburg Monarchy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
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1282–1918 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
![]() Flag of Austria (since 1804) ![]() Middle common coat of arms of 1866–1915 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
![]() The Habsburg monarchy on the eve of the French Revolution, 1789 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Capital | Vienna | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Religion | Roman Catholicism (official) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Monarch | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1282–1291 | Rudolf I | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1452–1493 | Frederick III | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1508–1519 | Maximilian I | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1519–1556 | Charles V | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1556–1598 | Philip II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1556–1564 | Ferdinand I | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1665–1700 | Charles II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1740–1780 | Maria Theresa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1780–1790 | Joseph II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1792–1835 | Francis II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1848–1916 | Franz Joseph | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1916–1918 | Charles I | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Historical era |
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• Established | 1282 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1918 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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The history of the Habsburg monarchy can be traced back to the election of Rudolf I as King of Germany in 1273 and his acquisition of the Duchy of Austria for the Habsburgs in 1282. In 1482, Maximilian I acquired the Netherlands through marriage. Both realms passed to his grandson and successor, Charles V, who also inherited the Spanish throne and its colonial possessions, and thus came to rule the Habsburg empire at its greatest territorial extent. The abdication of Charles V in 1556 led to a division within the dynasty between his son Philip II of Spain and his brother Ferdinand I, who had served as his lieutenant and the elected king of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia. The Spanish branch (which held all of Iberia, the Netherlands, and lands in Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which ruled the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Bohemia and various other lands) was itself split into different branches in 1564 but reunited 101 years later. It became extinct in the male line in 1740, but continued through the female line as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine.
The Habsburg monarchy was a union of crowns, with only partial shared laws and institutions other than the Habsburg court itself; the provinces were divided in three groups: the Archduchy proper, Inner Austria that included Styria and Carniola, and Further Austria with Tyrol and the Swabian lands. The territorial possessions of the monarchy were thus united only by virtue of a common monarch. The Habsburg realms were unified in 1804 with the formation of the Austrian Empire and later split in two with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The monarchy began to fracture in the face of inevitable defeat during the final years of World War I and ultimately disbanded with the proclamation of the Republic of German-Austria and the First Hungarian Republic in late 1918.
In historiography, the terms "Austria" or "Austrians" are frequently used as shorthand for the Habsburg monarchy since the 18th century. From 1438 to 1806, the rulers of the House of Habsburg almost continuously reigned as Holy Roman Emperors. However, the realms of the Holy Roman Empire were mostly self-governing and are thus not considered to have been part of the Habsburg monarchy. Hence, the Habsburg monarchy (of the Austrian branch) is often called "Austria" by metonymy. Around 1700, the Latin term monarchia austriaca came into use as a term of convenience. Within the empire alone, the vast possessions included the original Hereditary Lands, the Erblande, from before 1526; the Lands of the Bohemian Crown; the formerly Spanish Austrian Netherlands from 1714 until 1794; and some fiefs in Imperial Italy. Outside the empire, they encompassed all the Kingdom of Hungary as well as conquests made at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. The dynastic capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, when it was in Prague.
Origins and expansion
The first Habsburg who can be reliably traced was Radbot of Klettgau, who was born in the late 10th century; the family name originated with Habsburg Castle, in present-day Switzerland, which was built by Radbot. After 1279, the Habsburgs came to rule in the Duchy of Austria, which was part of the elective Kingdom of Germany within the Holy Roman Empire. King Rudolf I of Germany of the Habsburg family assigned the Duchy of Austria to his sons at the Diet of Augsburg (1282), thus establishing the "Austrian hereditary lands". From that moment, the Habsburg dynasty was also known as the House of Austria. Between 1438 and 1806, with few exceptions, the Habsburg Archduke of Austria was elected as Holy Roman Emperor.
The Habsburgs grew to European prominence as a result of the dynastic policy pursued by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy, thus bringing the Burgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg possessions. Their son, Philip the Handsome, married Joanna the Mad of Spain (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile). Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, the son of Philip and Joanna, inherited the Habsburg Netherlands in 1506, Habsburg Spain and its territories in 1516, and Habsburg Austria in 1519.
At this point, the Habsburg possessions were so vast that Charles V was constantly travelling throughout his dominions and therefore needed deputies and regents, such as Isabella of Portugal in Spain and Margaret of Austria in the Low Countries, to govern his various realms. At the Diet of Worms in 1521, Emperor Charles V came to terms with his younger brother Ferdinand. According to the Habsburg compact of Worms (1521), confirmed a year later in Brussels, Ferdinand was made Archduke, as a regent of Charles V in the Austrian hereditary lands.
Following the death of Louis II of Hungary in the Battle of Mohács against the Ottoman Turks, Archduke Ferdinand (who was his brother-in-law by virtue of an adoption treaty signed by Maximilian and Vladislaus II, Louis's father at the First Congress of Vienna) was also elected the next king of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526. Bohemia and Hungary became hereditary Habsburg domains only in the 17th century: Following victory in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) over the Bohemian rebels, Ferdinand II promulgated a Renewed Land Ordinance (1627/1628) that established hereditary succession over Bohemia. Following the Battle of Mohács (1687), in which Leopold I reconquered almost all of Ottoman Hungary from the Turks, the emperor held a diet in Pressburg to establish hereditary succession in the Hungarian kingdom.
Charles V divided the House in 1556 by ceding Austria along with the Imperial crown to Ferdinand (as decided at the Imperial election, 1531), and the Spanish Empire to his son Philip. The Spanish branch (which also held the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Portugal between 1580 and 1640, and the Mezzogiorno of Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which also ruled the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary and Bohemia) was itself divided between different branches of the family from 1564 until 1665, but thereafter it remained a single personal union. It became extinct in the male line in 1740, but through the marriage of Queen Maria Theresa with Francis of Lorraine, the dynasty continued as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine.
Names
- Habsburg monarchy (German Habsburgermonarchie): this is an unofficial umbrella term, very frequently used, but was not an official name.
- Austrian monarchy (Latin: monarchia austriaca) came into use around 1700 as a term of convenience for the Habsburg territories.
- "Danubian monarchy" (German: Donaumonarchie) was an unofficial name often used contemporaneously.
- "Dual monarchy" (German: Doppel-Monarchie) referred to the combination of Cisleithania and the Transleithania, two states under one crowned ruler.
- Austrian Empire (German: Kaisertum Österreich): This was the official name of the new Habsburg empire created in 1804, immediately prior to the Holy Roman Empire being dissolved in 1806. In this context, the English word empire refers to a territory ruled by an emperor, and not to a "widespreading domain".
- Austria-Hungary (German: Österreich-Ungarn), 1867–1918: This name was commonly used in international relations, although the official name was Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (German: Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie).
- Crownlands or crown lands (Kronländer) (1849–1918): This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire (1849–1867), and then of Austria-Hungary from 1867 on. The Kingdom of Hungary (more exactly the Lands of the Hungarian Crown) was not considered a "crownland" anymore after the establishment of Austria-Hungary in 1867, so that the "crownlands" became identical with what was called the Kingdoms and Lands represented in the Imperial Council (Die im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreiche und Länder).
- The Hungarian parts of the empire were called "Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen" or "Lands of Holy (St.) Stephen's Crown" (Länder der Heiligen Stephans Krone). The Bohemian (Czech) Lands were called "Lands of the St. Wenceslaus' Crown" (Länder der Wenzels-Krone).
Names of some smaller territories:
- The Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg finally became Austrian in 1816 after the Napoleonic wars; before that it was ruled by the prince-archbishops of Salzburg as a sovereign territory.
- The Prince-Bishopric of Trent and Prince-Bishopric of Brixen became Austrian in 1803 following the Treaty of Lunéville.
- Austria, historically, was split into "Austria above the Enns" and "Austria below the Enns" (the Enns river is the state-border between Upper- and Lower Austria). Upper Austria was enlarged after the Treaty of Teschen (1779) following the War of the Bavarian Succession by the so-called Innviertel ("Inn Quarter"), formerly part of Bavaria.
- Hereditary Lands (Erblande or Erbländer; mostly used Österreichische Erblande) or German Hereditary Lands (in the Austrian monarchy) or Austrian Hereditary Lands (Middle Ages – 1849/1918): In a narrower sense these were the "original" Habsburg territories, principally the Archduchy of Austria (Oesterreich), Duchy of Styria (Steiermark), Duchy of Carinthia (Kaernten), Duchy of Carniola (Krain), County of Tyrol (Tirol) and Vorarlberg. In a wider sense the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were also included (from 1526; definitively from 1620/27) in the Hereditary Lands. The term was replaced by the term "Crownlands" (see above) in the 1849 March Constitution, but it was also used afterwards.
The Erblande also included many small territories that were principalities, duchies or counties in other parts of the Holy Roman Empire, such as Further Austria.
Territories of the Habsburg Monarchy
The territories ruled by the Austrian monarchy changed over the centuries, but the core always consisted of four blocs:
- The Hereditary Lands, which covered most of the modern states of Austria and Slovenia, as well as territories in northeastern Italy and (before 1797) southwestern Germany. To these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria and in 1803 the Prince-Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen. The Napoleonic Wars caused disruptions where many parts of the Hereditary lands were lost, but all these, along with the former Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg, which had previously been temporarily annexed between 1805 and 1809, were recovered at the Congress of Vienna 1815, with the exception of Further Austria. The Hereditary provinces included:
- Archduchy of Austria
- Upper Austria
- Lower Austria
- Inner Austria
- Duchy of Styria
- Duchy of Carinthia
- Duchy of Carniola
- The Imperial Free City of Trieste
- Margraviate of Istria (although much of Istria was Venetian territory until 1797)
- Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca
- County of Tyrol (although the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen dominated what would become the South Tyrol before 1803
- Duchy of Salzburg
- Further Austria, mostly ruled jointly with Tyrol.
- Vorarlberg (actually a collection of provinces, only united in the 19th century)
- The Vorlande, a group of territories in Breisgau and elsewhere in southwestern Germany lost in 1801 (although the Alsatian territories (Sundgau) which had formed a part of it had been lost as early as 1648)
- Grand Duchy of Salzburg (only after 1805)
Coronation of Maria Theresa in Pressburg, Kingdom of Hungary, 1741
- Archduchy of Austria
- The Lands of the Bohemian Crown. The Bohemian Diet elected Ferdinand, later Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I, as king in 1526. Initially consisting of the five lands:
- Kingdom of Bohemia
- Margraviate of Moravia
- Silesia, Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1740–1742 and the remnants which stayed under Habsburg sovereignty were ruled as Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia (Austrian Silesia).
- Lusatia, was ceded to Saxony in 1635.
- Upper Lusatia
- Lower Lusatia
- The Kingdom of Hungary – two-thirds of the former territory that was administered by the medieval Kingdom of Hungary was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and the Princes of vassal Ottoman Transylvania, while the Habsburg administration was restricted to the western and northern territories of the former kingdom, which remained to be officially referred as the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1699, at the end of the Ottoman–Habsburg wars, one part of the territories that were administered by the former medieval Kingdom of Hungary came under Habsburg administration, with some other areas being acquired in 1718 (some of the territories that were part of medieval kingdom, notably those in the south of the Sava and Danube rivers, remained under Ottoman administration).
- Kingdom of Croatia
- Military Frontier
Over the course of its history, other lands were, at times, under Austrian Habsburg rule (some of these territories were secundogenitures, i.e. ruled by other lines of Habsburg dynasty):
- Serbia occupation (1686–1691)
- Kingdom of Slavonia (1699–1868)
- Duchy of Milan (1706–1797)
- Duchy of Mantua (1706–1797)
- Kingdom of Naples (1707–1735)
- Kingdom of Sardinia (1707–1720)
- State of the Presidi (1707–1733)
- Austrian Netherlands, consisting of most of modern Belgium and Luxembourg (1713–1795)
- Grand Principality of Transylvania, between 1699 (Treaty of Karlowitz) and 1867 (Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867)
- Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)
- Banat of Temeswar (1718–1778)
- Banat of Craiova (1718–1739 de facto, 1716–1737)
- Kingdom of Sicily (1720–1735)
- Duchy of Parma and Piacenza (1735–1748)
- Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, in modern Poland and Ukraine (1772–1918)
- Duchy of Bukovina (1774–1918)
- Serbia occupation (1788–1791)
- West Galicia, the Polish lands, including Kraków, taken in the Third Partition (1795–1809)
- Venetia (1797–1805)
- Kingdom of Dalmatia (1797–1805, 1814–1918)
- Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1814–1866)
- Grand Duchy of Kraków, which was incorporated into Galicia (1846–1918)
- Serbian Vojvodina (1848–1849) de facto entity, officially unrecognized
- Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar (1849–1860)
- Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (1868–1918)
- Sanjak of Novi Pazar occupation (1878–1908)
- Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918)
The boundaries of some of these territories varied over the period indicated, and others were ruled by a subordinate (secundogeniture) Habsburg line. The Habsburgs also held the title of Holy Roman Emperor between 1438 and 1740, and again from 1745 to 1806.
Characteristics
Within the early modern Habsburg monarchy, each entity was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same person—junior members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. Serious attempts at centralization began under Maria Theresa and especially her son Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor in the mid to late 18th century, but many of these were abandoned following large scale resistance to Joseph's more radical reform attempts, although a more cautious policy of centralization continued during the revolutionary period and the Metternichian period that followed.
Another attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the various revolutions of 1848. For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a centralized bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary was placed under martial law, being divided into a series of military districts, and the Diet of Hungary was forced to dissolve after the revolution was suppressed by Austrian troops under the command of Julius Jacob von Haynau. Following the Habsburg defeats in the Second Italian War of Independence (1859) and Austro-Prussian War (1866), these policies were gradually abandoned.
After experimentation in the early 1860s, the famous Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was arrived at, by which the so-called dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary was set up. In this system, the Kingdom of Hungary ("Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen.") was an equal sovereign with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. Although the non-Hungarian Habsburg lands were referred to as "Austria", received their own central parliament (the Reichsrat, or Imperial Council) and ministries, as their official name – the "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council". When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed (after 30 years of occupation and administration), it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy. Instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance.
During the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the Austrian territories collapsed under the weight of the various ethnic independence movements that came to the fore with its defeat in World War I. After its dissolution, the new republics of Austria (the German-Austrian territories of the Hereditary lands) and the First Hungarian Republic were created. In the peace settlement that followed, significant territories were ceded to Romania and Italy and the remainder of the monarchy's territory was shared out among the new states of Poland, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and Czechoslovakia.
Other lines
A junior line ruled over the Grand Duchy of Tuscany between 1765 and 1801, and again from 1814 to 1859. While exiled from Tuscany, this line ruled at Salzburg from 1803 to 1805, and in Grand Duchy of Würzburg from 1805 to 1814. The House of Austria-Este ruled the Duchy of Modena from 1814 to 1859, while Empress Marie Louise, Napoleon's second wife and the daughter of Austrian Emperor Francis I, ruled over the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza between 1814 and 1847. Also, the Second Mexican Empire, from 1863 to 1867, was headed by Maximilian I of Mexico, the brother of Emperor Franz Josef of Austria.
Rulers, 1508–1918
The so-called "Habsburg monarchs" or "Habsburg emperors" held many different titles and ruled each kingdom separately through a personal union.
House of Habsburg
- Frederick III (1452–1493)
- Maximilian I (1493–1519)
- Charles V (1519–1556)
- Ferdinand I (1556–1564)
- Maximilian II (1564–1576)
- Rudolf II (1576–1612)
- Matthias (1612–1619)
- Ferdinand II (1619–1637)
- Ferdinand III (1637–1657)
- Leopold I (1657–1705)
- Joseph I (1705–1711)
- Charles VI (1711–1740)
- Maria Theresa (1740–1780)
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
- Joseph II (1780–1790)
- Leopold II (1790–1792)
- Francis II (1792–1835)
- Ferdinand I (1835–1848)
- Francis Joseph I (1848–1916)
- Charles I (1916–1918)
Family tree
- Habsburg family tree
In literature
The decline of the Habsburg Empire is given in Stefan Zweig's The World of Yesterday.
Stefan Zweig, l'autore del più famoso libro sull'Impero asburgico, Die Welt von Gestern
Male-line family tree
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Notes:
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See also
- Habsburg myth
- Universal monarchy
References
Notes
- First monarch as king of Germany.
- First Holy Roman Emperor of the Habsburg dynasty.
- Last monarch of a uniform House of Habsburg.
- First ruler of the Spanish branch of a divided Habsburg dynasty.
- First ruler of the Austrian branch of a divided Habsburg dynasty.
- Last ruler of the Spanish branch.
- Last Holy Roman Emperor and, as Francis I, first emperor of Austria.
- Final monarch of the House of Habsburg.
- German: Habsburgermonarchie, pronounced [ˈhaːpsbʊʁɡɐmonaʁˌçiː]
- German: Habsburgerreich [ˈhaːpsbʊʁɡɐˌʁaɪç]
- German: Donaumonarchie [ˈdoːnaʊmonaʁˌçiː]
Citations
- "Quando il 13 dicembre l'imperatore Francesco restituì a Venezia i suoi 4 cavalli" [On December 13, Emperor Francis returned the 4 Horses to Venice]. L'Indipendenza Nuova (in Italian). 13 December 2015. Archived from the original on 24 September 2021. The Austrian flag in Venice during the Habsburg rule.
- Lott, Elizabeth S.; Pavlac, Brian A., eds. (2019). "Rudolf I (r. 1273–1291)". The Holy Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio. pp. 266–268. ISBN 978-1-4408-4856-8. LCCN 2018048886. Archived from the original on 2022-11-07. Retrieved 2022-11-07.
- Vienna website; "Austro-Hungarian Empire k.u.k. Monarchy dual-monarchic Habsburg Emperors of Austria". Archived from the original on 2011-11-23. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
- Encyclopædia Britannica online article Austria-Hungary; https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44386/Austria-Hungary Archived 2015-04-29 at the Wayback Machine
- Hochedlinger 2013, p. 9.
- "Czech Republic – Historic Centre of Prague (1992)" Heindorffhus, August 2007, HeindorffHus-Czech Archived 2007-03-20 at archive.today.
- Rady 2020, pp. 12, 14–15
- Kanski, Jack J. (2019). History of the German speaking nations. Troubador Publishing. ISBN 978-1789017182.
- Pavlac, Brian A.; Lott, Elizabeth S. (2019). The Holy Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. Abc-Clio. ISBN 978-1440848568.
- "Ferdinand I". Encyclopædia Britannica. 9 June 2023. Archived from the original on 29 April 2015. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
- Kotulla 2008, p. 485.
- Simon Adams (2005). The Balkans. Black Rabbit Books. pp. 1974–. ISBN 978-1-58340-603-8.
- Scott Lackey (1995). The Rebirth of the Habsburg Army: Friedrich Beck and the Rise of the General Staff. ABC-CLIO. pp. 166–. ISBN 978-0-313-03131-1.
- Carl Cavanagh Hodge (2008). Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914: A–K. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 59–. ISBN 978-0-313-33406-1.
- Ströhl, Hugo Gerhard (1890). Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Wappenrolle: die Wappen ihrer K.u.k. Majestäten, die Wappen der durchlauchtigsten Herren Erzherzoge, die Staatswappen von Oesterreich und Ungarn, die Wappen der Kronländer und der ungarischen Comitate, die Flaggen, Fahnen und Cocarden beider Reichshälften, sowie das Wappen des souverainen Fürstenthumes [An Austro-Hungarian Roll of Arms] (in German).
- Taylor, A.J.P. (1976). The Habsburg monarchy, 1809–1918: a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary. University of Chicago Press.
- Manacorda, Giorgio (2010). "Nota bibliografica". In Roth, Joseph (ed.). La Marcia di Radetzky (in Italian). Newton Compton Editori. p. 15. ISBN 978-8-8541-2899-6.
Sources
- Hochedlinger, Michael (2013) [2003]. Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683–1797. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-582-29084-6.
- Kotulla, Michael (2008). Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934) (in German). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-48705-0.
- Rady, Martyn (2020). The Habsburgs: The Rise and Fall of a World Power. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-241-33262-7.
Further reading
- Bérenger, Jean (2013). A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1273–1700. Routledge.
- —— (2014). A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1700–1918. Routledge.
- Evans, Robert John Weston (1979). The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550–1700: An Interpretation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1987-3085-3.
- —— (May 2020). "Remembering the Fall of the Habsburg Monarchy One Hundred Years on: Three Master Interpretations". Austrian History Yearbook. 51: 269–291. doi:10.1017/S0067237820000181. S2CID 216447628.
- Fichtner, Paula Sutter (2003). The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490–1848: Attributes of Empire, Palgrave Macmillan.
- Goleșteanu-Jacobs, Raluca (2023), Habsburg Galicia and the Romanian Kingdom Sociocultural Development, 1866–1914, Poland-Transnational Histories, Routledge
- Henderson, Nicholas. "Joseph II" History Today (Sept 1955) 5#9 pp. 613–621.
- Ingrao, Charles (1979). In Quest and Crisis: Emperor Joseph I and the Habsburg Monarchy. Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-0-9111-9853-9.
- —— (2000). The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5213-8009-6.
- Judson, Pieter M. The Habsburg Empire: A New History (2016) excerpt Archived 2022-08-18 at the Wayback Machine
- Kann, Robert A. A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918 (University of California Press, 1974) online
- Lieven, Dominic. Empire: The Russian empire and its rivals (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Ottoman empires.
- Macartney, Carlile Aylmer (1969). The Habsburg Empire, 1790–1918. Macmillan.
- McCagg Jr., William O (1989). A History of the Habsburg Jews, 1670–1918 (Indiana University Press.
- Mitchell, A. Wess (2018). The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire. Princeton University Press.
- Oakes, Elizabeth and Eric Roman (2003). Austria-Hungary and the Successor States: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present.
- Sked, Alan (1989). The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815–1918. Longman.
- Stone, Norman. "The Last Days of the Habsburg Monarchy", History Today (Aug 1968), Vol. 18 Issue 8, pp. 551–560
- Steed, Henry Wickham; et al. (1914). A short history of Austria-Hungary and Poland. Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. p. 145.
- Taylor, A. J. P. (1964). The Habsburg monarchy, 1809–1918: a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary (2nd ed.). Penguin Books.
External links
- Habsburg in an email discussion list dealing with the culture and history of the Habsburg Monarchy and its successor states in central Europe since 1500, with discussions, syllabi, book reviews, queries, conferences; edited daily by scholars since 1994.
The Habsburg monarchy also known as Habsburg Empire or Habsburg Realm ˈ h ae p s b ɜːr ɡ was the collection of empires kingdoms duchies counties and other polities that were ruled by the House of Habsburg From the 18th century it is also referred to as the Austrian monarchy Latin Monarchia Austriaca or the Danubian monarchy Habsburg MonarchyMonarchia Austriaca Latin Habsburgermonarchie German 1282 1918Flag of Austria since 1804 Middle common coat of arms of 1866 1915The Habsburg monarchy on the eve of the French Revolution 1789CapitalViennaReligionRoman Catholicism official GovernmentMonarchyMonarch 1282 1291Rudolf I 1452 1493Frederick III 1508 1519Maximilian I 1519 1556Charles V 1556 1598Philip II 1556 1564Ferdinand I 1665 1700Charles II 1740 1780Maria Theresa 1780 1790Joseph II 1792 1835Francis II 1848 1916Franz Joseph 1916 1918Charles IHistorical eraMiddle Ages Early modern Late modern Established1282 Disestablished1918Preceded by Succeeded byHabsburg Hereditary LandsSpanish NetherlandsDuchy of MantuaLands of the Bohemian CrownLands of the Hungarian CrownKingdom of CroatiaPolish Lithuanian CommonwealthSanjak of Smederevo Austrian EmpireRepublic of German Austria The history of the Habsburg monarchy can be traced back to the election of Rudolf I as King of Germany in 1273 and his acquisition of the Duchy of Austria for the Habsburgs in 1282 In 1482 Maximilian I acquired the Netherlands through marriage Both realms passed to his grandson and successor Charles V who also inherited the Spanish throne and its colonial possessions and thus came to rule the Habsburg empire at its greatest territorial extent The abdication of Charles V in 1556 led to a division within the dynasty between his son Philip II of Spain and his brother Ferdinand I who had served as his lieutenant and the elected king of Hungary Croatia and Bohemia The Spanish branch which held all of Iberia the Netherlands and lands in Italy became extinct in 1700 The Austrian branch which ruled the Holy Roman Empire Hungary Bohemia and various other lands was itself split into different branches in 1564 but reunited 101 years later It became extinct in the male line in 1740 but continued through the female line as the House of Habsburg Lorraine The Habsburg monarchy was a union of crowns with only partial shared laws and institutions other than the Habsburg court itself the provinces were divided in three groups the Archduchy proper Inner Austria that included Styria and Carniola and Further Austria with Tyrol and the Swabian lands The territorial possessions of the monarchy were thus united only by virtue of a common monarch The Habsburg realms were unified in 1804 with the formation of the Austrian Empire and later split in two with the Austro Hungarian Compromise of 1867 The monarchy began to fracture in the face of inevitable defeat during the final years of World War I and ultimately disbanded with the proclamation of the Republic of German Austria and the First Hungarian Republic in late 1918 In historiography the terms Austria or Austrians are frequently used as shorthand for the Habsburg monarchy since the 18th century From 1438 to 1806 the rulers of the House of Habsburg almost continuously reigned as Holy Roman Emperors However the realms of the Holy Roman Empire were mostly self governing and are thus not considered to have been part of the Habsburg monarchy Hence the Habsburg monarchy of the Austrian branch is often called Austria by metonymy Around 1700 the Latin term monarchia austriaca came into use as a term of convenience Within the empire alone the vast possessions included the original Hereditary Lands the Erblande from before 1526 the Lands of the Bohemian Crown the formerly Spanish Austrian Netherlands from 1714 until 1794 and some fiefs in Imperial Italy Outside the empire they encompassed all the Kingdom of Hungary as well as conquests made at the expense of the Ottoman Empire The dynastic capital was Vienna except from 1583 to 1611 when it was in Prague Origins and expansionSilver medallion depicting King Rudolf I with his sons Albert and Rudolf II at the Diet of Augsburg which laid the foundation of the House of Habsburg Work by Anton Scharff for the 600th anniversary of the constitution of the Erblande 1882 The first Habsburg who can be reliably traced was Radbot of Klettgau who was born in the late 10th century the family name originated with Habsburg Castle in present day Switzerland which was built by Radbot After 1279 the Habsburgs came to rule in the Duchy of Austria which was part of the elective Kingdom of Germany within the Holy Roman Empire King Rudolf I of Germany of the Habsburg family assigned the Duchy of Austria to his sons at the Diet of Augsburg 1282 thus establishing the Austrian hereditary lands From that moment the Habsburg dynasty was also known as the House of Austria Between 1438 and 1806 with few exceptions the Habsburg Archduke of Austria was elected as Holy Roman Emperor The Habsburgs grew to European prominence as a result of the dynastic policy pursued by Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy thus bringing the Burgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg possessions Their son Philip the Handsome married Joanna the Mad of Spain daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile Charles V Holy Roman Emperor the son of Philip and Joanna inherited the Habsburg Netherlands in 1506 Habsburg Spain and its territories in 1516 and Habsburg Austria in 1519 At this point the Habsburg possessions were so vast that Charles V was constantly travelling throughout his dominions and therefore needed deputies and regents such as Isabella of Portugal in Spain and Margaret of Austria in the Low Countries to govern his various realms At the Diet of Worms in 1521 Emperor Charles V came to terms with his younger brother Ferdinand According to the Habsburg compact of Worms 1521 confirmed a year later in Brussels Ferdinand was made Archduke as a regent of Charles V in the Austrian hereditary lands Following the death of Louis II of Hungary in the Battle of Mohacs against the Ottoman Turks Archduke Ferdinand who was his brother in law by virtue of an adoption treaty signed by Maximilian and Vladislaus II Louis s father at the First Congress of Vienna was also elected the next king of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526 Bohemia and Hungary became hereditary Habsburg domains only in the 17th century Following victory in the Battle of White Mountain 1620 over the Bohemian rebels Ferdinand II promulgated a Renewed Land Ordinance 1627 1628 that established hereditary succession over Bohemia Following the Battle of Mohacs 1687 in which Leopold I reconquered almost all of Ottoman Hungary from the Turks the emperor held a diet in Pressburg to establish hereditary succession in the Hungarian kingdom Map of Central Europe in 1648 Territories under the Holy Roman Empire comprising the Alpine heartland Erblande of the Habsburg monarchy Charles V divided the House in 1556 by ceding Austria along with the Imperial crown to Ferdinand as decided at the Imperial election 1531 and the Spanish Empire to his son Philip The Spanish branch which also held the Netherlands the Kingdom of Portugal between 1580 and 1640 and the Mezzogiorno of Italy became extinct in 1700 The Austrian branch which also ruled the Holy Roman Empire Hungary and Bohemia was itself divided between different branches of the family from 1564 until 1665 but thereafter it remained a single personal union It became extinct in the male line in 1740 but through the marriage of Queen Maria Theresa with Francis of Lorraine the dynasty continued as the House of Habsburg Lorraine Names Habsburg monarchy German Habsburgermonarchie this is an unofficial umbrella term very frequently used but was not an official name Austrian monarchy Latin monarchia austriaca came into use around 1700 as a term of convenience for the Habsburg territories Danubian monarchy German Donaumonarchie was an unofficial name often used contemporaneously Dual monarchy German Doppel Monarchie referred to the combination of Cisleithania and the Transleithania two states under one crowned ruler Austrian Empire German Kaisertum Osterreich This was the official name of the new Habsburg empire created in 1804 immediately prior to the Holy Roman Empire being dissolved in 1806 In this context the English word empire refers to a territory ruled by an emperor and not to a widespreading domain Austria Hungary German Osterreich Ungarn 1867 1918 This name was commonly used in international relations although the official name was Austro Hungarian Monarchy German Osterreichisch Ungarische Monarchie Crownlands or crown lands Kronlander 1849 1918 This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire 1849 1867 and then of Austria Hungary from 1867 on The Kingdom of Hungary more exactly the Lands of the Hungarian Crown was not considered a crownland anymore after the establishment of Austria Hungary in 1867 so that the crownlands became identical with what was called the Kingdoms and Lands represented in the Imperial Council Die im Reichsrate vertretenen Konigreiche und Lander The Hungarian parts of the empire were called Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen or Lands of Holy St Stephen s Crown Lander der Heiligen Stephans Krone The Bohemian Czech Lands were called Lands of the St Wenceslaus Crown Lander der Wenzels Krone Names of some smaller territories The Prince Archbishopric of Salzburg finally became Austrian in 1816 after the Napoleonic wars before that it was ruled by the prince archbishops of Salzburg as a sovereign territory The Prince Bishopric of Trent and Prince Bishopric of Brixen became Austrian in 1803 following the Treaty of Luneville Austria historically was split into Austria above the Enns and Austria below the Enns the Enns river is the state border between Upper and Lower Austria Upper Austria was enlarged after the Treaty of Teschen 1779 following the War of the Bavarian Succession by the so called Innviertel Inn Quarter formerly part of Bavaria Hereditary Lands Erblande or Erblander mostly used Osterreichische Erblande or German Hereditary Lands in the Austrian monarchy or Austrian Hereditary Lands Middle Ages 1849 1918 In a narrower sense these were the original Habsburg territories principally the Archduchy of Austria Oesterreich Duchy of Styria Steiermark Duchy of Carinthia Kaernten Duchy of Carniola Krain County of Tyrol Tirol and Vorarlberg In a wider sense the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were also included from 1526 definitively from 1620 27 in the Hereditary Lands The term was replaced by the term Crownlands see above in the 1849 March Constitution but it was also used afterwards The Erblande also included many small territories that were principalities duchies or counties in other parts of the Holy Roman Empire such as Further Austria Territories of the Habsburg MonarchyGrowth of the Habsburg monarchy in central EuropeThe Habsburg monarchy at the time of Joseph II s death in 1790 The red line marks the borders of the Holy Roman Empire The territories ruled by the Austrian monarchy changed over the centuries but the core always consisted of four blocs The Hereditary Lands which covered most of the modern states of Austria and Slovenia as well as territories in northeastern Italy and before 1797 southwestern Germany To these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria and in 1803 the Prince Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen The Napoleonic Wars caused disruptions where many parts of the Hereditary lands were lost but all these along with the former Prince Archbishopric of Salzburg which had previously been temporarily annexed between 1805 and 1809 were recovered at the Congress of Vienna 1815 with the exception of Further Austria The Hereditary provinces included Archduchy of Austria Upper Austria Lower Austria Inner Austria Duchy of Styria Duchy of Carinthia Duchy of Carniola The Imperial Free City of Trieste Margraviate of Istria although much of Istria was Venetian territory until 1797 Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca County of Tyrol although the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen dominated what would become the South Tyrol before 1803 Duchy of Salzburg Further Austria mostly ruled jointly with Tyrol Vorarlberg actually a collection of provinces only united in the 19th century The Vorlande a group of territories in Breisgau and elsewhere in southwestern Germany lost in 1801 although the Alsatian territories Sundgau which had formed a part of it had been lost as early as 1648 Grand Duchy of Salzburg only after 1805 Coronation of Maria Theresa in Pressburg Kingdom of Hungary 1741 The Lands of the Bohemian Crown The Bohemian Diet elected Ferdinand later Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I as king in 1526 Initially consisting of the five lands Kingdom of Bohemia Margraviate of Moravia Silesia Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1740 1742 and the remnants which stayed under Habsburg sovereignty were ruled as Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia Austrian Silesia Lusatia was ceded to Saxony in 1635 Upper Lusatia Lower Lusatia The Kingdom of Hungary two thirds of the former territory that was administered by the medieval Kingdom of Hungary was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and the Princes of vassal Ottoman Transylvania while the Habsburg administration was restricted to the western and northern territories of the former kingdom which remained to be officially referred as the Kingdom of Hungary In 1699 at the end of the Ottoman Habsburg wars one part of the territories that were administered by the former medieval Kingdom of Hungary came under Habsburg administration with some other areas being acquired in 1718 some of the territories that were part of medieval kingdom notably those in the south of the Sava and Danube rivers remained under Ottoman administration Kingdom of Croatia Military FrontierEuropa regina symbolizing a Habsburg dominated EuropeSoldiers of the Military Frontier against the incursions of the Ottoman Turks 1756 Over the course of its history other lands were at times under Austrian Habsburg rule some of these territories were secundogenitures i e ruled by other lines of Habsburg dynasty Serbia occupation 1686 1691 Kingdom of Slavonia 1699 1868 Duchy of Milan 1706 1797 Duchy of Mantua 1706 1797 Kingdom of Naples 1707 1735 Kingdom of Sardinia 1707 1720 State of the Presidi 1707 1733 Austrian Netherlands consisting of most of modern Belgium and Luxembourg 1713 1795 Grand Principality of Transylvania between 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz and 1867 Austro Hungarian Compromise of 1867 Kingdom of Serbia 1718 1739 Banat of Temeswar 1718 1778 Banat of Craiova 1718 1739 de facto 1716 1737 Kingdom of Sicily 1720 1735 Duchy of Parma and Piacenza 1735 1748 Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria in modern Poland and Ukraine 1772 1918 Duchy of Bukovina 1774 1918 Serbia occupation 1788 1791 West Galicia the Polish lands including Krakow taken in the Third Partition 1795 1809 Venetia 1797 1805 Kingdom of Dalmatia 1797 1805 1814 1918 Kingdom of Lombardy Venetia 1814 1866 Grand Duchy of Krakow which was incorporated into Galicia 1846 1918 Serbian Vojvodina 1848 1849 de facto entity officially unrecognized Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar 1849 1860 Kingdom of Croatia Slavonia 1868 1918 Sanjak of Novi Pazar occupation 1878 1908 Austro Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1878 1918 The boundaries of some of these territories varied over the period indicated and others were ruled by a subordinate secundogeniture Habsburg line The Habsburgs also held the title of Holy Roman Emperor between 1438 and 1740 and again from 1745 to 1806 Characteristics Imperial coat of arms of the Austro Hungarian Empire used between the years 1815 1866 and 1867 1915 Within the early modern Habsburg monarchy each entity was governed according to its own particular customs Until the mid 17th century not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same person junior members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages Serious attempts at centralization began under Maria Theresa and especially her son Joseph II Holy Roman Emperor in the mid to late 18th century but many of these were abandoned following large scale resistance to Joseph s more radical reform attempts although a more cautious policy of centralization continued during the revolutionary period and the Metternichian period that followed Another attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the various revolutions of 1848 For the first time ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a centralized bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna The Kingdom of Hungary was placed under martial law being divided into a series of military districts and the Diet of Hungary was forced to dissolve after the revolution was suppressed by Austrian troops under the command of Julius Jacob von Haynau Following the Habsburg defeats in the Second Italian War of Independence 1859 and Austro Prussian War 1866 these policies were gradually abandoned After experimentation in the early 1860s the famous Austro Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was arrived at by which the so called dual monarchy of Austria Hungary was set up In this system the Kingdom of Hungary Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St Stephen was an equal sovereign with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands Although the non Hungarian Habsburg lands were referred to as Austria received their own central parliament the Reichsrat or Imperial Council and ministries as their official name the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed after 30 years of occupation and administration it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy Instead it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance During the dissolution of Austria Hungary the Austrian territories collapsed under the weight of the various ethnic independence movements that came to the fore with its defeat in World War I After its dissolution the new republics of Austria the German Austrian territories of the Hereditary lands and the First Hungarian Republic were created In the peace settlement that followed significant territories were ceded to Romania and Italy and the remainder of the monarchy s territory was shared out among the new states of Poland the Kingdom of Serbs Croats and Slovenes later Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia Other linesA junior line ruled over the Grand Duchy of Tuscany between 1765 and 1801 and again from 1814 to 1859 While exiled from Tuscany this line ruled at Salzburg from 1803 to 1805 and in Grand Duchy of Wurzburg from 1805 to 1814 The House of Austria Este ruled the Duchy of Modena from 1814 to 1859 while Empress Marie Louise Napoleon s second wife and the daughter of Austrian Emperor Francis I ruled over the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza between 1814 and 1847 Also the Second Mexican Empire from 1863 to 1867 was headed by Maximilian I of Mexico the brother of Emperor Franz Josef of Austria Rulers 1508 1918The so called Habsburg monarchs or Habsburg emperors held many different titles and ruled each kingdom separately through a personal union House of Habsburg Maximilian II Holy Roman Emperor and his wife Infanta Maria of Spain with their childrenImperial throne of Austria made for Emperor Franz Joseph IFrederick III 1452 1493 Maximilian I 1493 1519 Charles V 1519 1556 Ferdinand I 1556 1564 Maximilian II 1564 1576 Rudolf II 1576 1612 Matthias 1612 1619 Ferdinand II 1619 1637 Ferdinand III 1637 1657 Leopold I 1657 1705 Joseph I 1705 1711 Charles VI 1711 1740 Maria Theresa 1740 1780 House of Habsburg Lorraine Joseph II 1780 1790 Leopold II 1790 1792 Francis II 1792 1835 Ferdinand I 1835 1848 Francis Joseph I 1848 1916 Charles I 1916 1918 Family tree Habsburg family treeIn literatureThe decline of the Habsburg Empire is given in Stefan Zweig s The World of Yesterday Stefan Zweig l autore del piu famoso libro sull Impero asburgico Die Welt von GesternMale line family treevteHouse of Habsburg Original lineAlbert Count of Habsburg c 1188 1239Rudolf I of Germany c 1218 1291Albert I of Germany 1255 1308Hartmann 1263 1281Rudolf II Duke of Austria 1270 1290Rudolf I of Bohemia 1281 1307Frederick the Fair c 1289 1330Leopold I Duke of Austria 1290 1326Albert II Duke of Austria 1298 1358Henry the Friendly 1299 1327Otto Duke of Austria 1301 1339John Parricida c 1290 1312 1313 Albertinian line Leopoldian lineRudolf IV Duke of Austria 1339 1365Frederick III 1347 1362Albert III Duke of Austria 1349 1395Leopold III Duke of Austria 1351 1386Frederick II Duke of Austria 1327 1344Leopold II Duke of Austria 1328 1344Albert IV Duke of Austria 1377 1404William Duke of Austria c 1370 1406Leopold IV Duke of Austria 1371 1411Ernest Duke of Austria 1377 1424Frederick IV Duke of Austria 1382 1439Albert II of Germany 1397 1439Frederick III HRE 1415 1493Albert VI Archduke of Austria 1418 1463Sigismund Archduke of Austria 1427 1496Ladislaus the Posthumous 1440 1457Maximilian I HRE 1459 1519Philip I of Castile 1478 1506 Spanish Iberian line Austrian HRE lineCharles V HRE 1500 1558Ferdinand I HRE 1503 1564Philip II of Spain 1527 1598Maximilian II HRE 1527 1576Ferdinand II Archduke of Austria 1529 1595Charles II Archduke of Austria 1540 1590Carlos Prince of Asturias 1545 1568Philip III of Spain 1578 1621Rudolf II HRE 1552 1612Ernest of Austria 1553 1595Matthias HRE 1557 1619Maximilian III Archduke of Austria 1558 1618Albert VII Archduke of Austria 1559 1621Wenceslaus Archduke of Austria 1561 1578Andrew Margrave of Burgau 1558 1600Charles Margrave of Burgau 1560 1618Ferdinand II HRE 1578 1637Maximilian Ernest of Austria 1583 1616Leopold V Archduke of Austria 1586 1632Charles of Austria 1590 1624Philip IV of Spain 1605 1665Charles of Austria 1607 1632Ferdinand of Austria 1609 1641John Charles of Austria 1605 1619Ferdinand III HRE 1608 1657Leopold Wilhelm of Austria 1614 1662Ferdinand Charles Archduke of Austria 1628 1662Sigismund Francis Archduke of Austria 1630 1665Balthasar Charles Prince of Asturias 1629 1646Charles II of Spain 1661 1700Ferdinand IV King of the Romans 1633 1654Leopold I HRE 1640 1705Charles Joseph of Austria 1649 1664Joseph I HRE 1678 1711Charles VI HRE 1685 1740Notes Habsburg family tree Habsburg family website 28 October 2023 Retrieved 28 October 2023 See alsoHabsburg myth Universal monarchyReferencesNotes First monarch as king of Germany First Holy Roman Emperor of the Habsburg dynasty Last monarch of a uniform House of Habsburg First ruler of the Spanish branch of a divided Habsburg dynasty First ruler of the Austrian branch of a divided Habsburg dynasty Last ruler of the Spanish branch Last Holy Roman Emperor and as Francis I first emperor of Austria Final monarch of the House of Habsburg German Habsburgermonarchie pronounced ˈhaːpsbʊʁɡɐmonaʁˌciː German Habsburgerreich ˈhaːpsbʊʁɡɐˌʁaɪc German Donaumonarchie ˈdoːnaʊmonaʁˌciː Citations Quando il 13 dicembre l imperatore Francesco restitui a Venezia i suoi 4 cavalli On December 13 Emperor Francis returned the 4 Horses to Venice L Indipendenza Nuova in Italian 13 December 2015 Archived from the original on 24 September 2021 The Austrian flag in Venice during the Habsburg rule Lott Elizabeth S Pavlac Brian A eds 2019 Rudolf I r 1273 1291 The Holy Roman Empire A Historical Encyclopedia Vol 1 Santa Barbara California ABC Clio pp 266 268 ISBN 978 1 4408 4856 8 LCCN 2018048886 Archived from the original on 2022 11 07 Retrieved 2022 11 07 Vienna website Austro Hungarian Empire k u k Monarchy dual monarchic Habsburg Emperors of Austria Archived from the original on 2011 11 23 Retrieved 2011 09 11 Encyclopaedia Britannica online article Austria Hungary https www britannica com EBchecked topic 44386 Austria Hungary Archived 2015 04 29 at the Wayback Machine Hochedlinger 2013 p 9 Czech Republic Historic Centre of Prague 1992 Heindorffhus August 2007 HeindorffHus Czech Archived 2007 03 20 at archive today Rady 2020 pp 12 14 15 Kanski Jack J 2019 History of the German speaking nations Troubador Publishing ISBN 978 1789017182 Pavlac Brian A Lott Elizabeth S 2019 The Holy Roman Empire A Historical Encyclopedia 2 volumes Abc Clio ISBN 978 1440848568 Ferdinand I Encyclopaedia Britannica 9 June 2023 Archived from the original on 29 April 2015 Retrieved 21 June 2022 Kotulla 2008 p 485 Simon Adams 2005 The Balkans Black Rabbit Books pp 1974 ISBN 978 1 58340 603 8 Scott Lackey 1995 The Rebirth of the Habsburg Army Friedrich Beck and the Rise of the General Staff ABC CLIO pp 166 ISBN 978 0 313 03131 1 Carl Cavanagh Hodge 2008 Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism 1800 1914 A K Greenwood Publishing Group pp 59 ISBN 978 0 313 33406 1 Strohl Hugo Gerhard 1890 Oesterreichisch Ungarische Wappenrolle die Wappen ihrer K u k Majestaten die Wappen der durchlauchtigsten Herren Erzherzoge die Staatswappen von Oesterreich und Ungarn die Wappen der Kronlander und der ungarischen Comitate die Flaggen Fahnen und Cocarden beider Reichshalften sowie das Wappen des souverainen Furstenthumes An Austro Hungarian Roll of Arms in German Taylor A J P 1976 The Habsburg monarchy 1809 1918 a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria Hungary University of Chicago Press Manacorda Giorgio 2010 Nota bibliografica In Roth Joseph ed La Marcia di Radetzky in Italian Newton Compton Editori p 15 ISBN 978 8 8541 2899 6 Sources Hochedlinger Michael 2013 2003 Austria s Wars of Emergence 1683 1797 Abingdon Routledge ISBN 978 0 582 29084 6 Kotulla Michael 2008 Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar 1495 1934 in German Berlin Springer ISBN 978 3 540 48705 0 Rady Martyn 2020 The Habsburgs The Rise and Fall of a World Power London Allen Lane ISBN 978 0 241 33262 7 Further readingBerenger Jean 2013 A History of the Habsburg Empire 1273 1700 Routledge 2014 A History of the Habsburg Empire 1700 1918 Routledge Evans Robert John Weston 1979 The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy 1550 1700 An Interpretation Oxford University Press ISBN 0 1987 3085 3 May 2020 Remembering the Fall of the Habsburg Monarchy One Hundred Years on Three Master Interpretations Austrian History Yearbook 51 269 291 doi 10 1017 S0067237820000181 S2CID 216447628 Fichtner Paula Sutter 2003 The Habsburg Monarchy 1490 1848 Attributes of Empire Palgrave Macmillan Goleșteanu Jacobs Raluca 2023 Habsburg Galicia and the Romanian Kingdom Sociocultural Development 1866 1914 Poland Transnational Histories Routledge Henderson Nicholas Joseph II History Today Sept 1955 5 9 pp 613 621 Ingrao Charles 1979 In Quest and Crisis Emperor Joseph I and the Habsburg Monarchy Purdue University Press ISBN 978 0 9111 9853 9 2000 The Habsburg Monarchy 1618 1815 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 5213 8009 6 Judson Pieter M The Habsburg Empire A New History 2016 excerpt Archived 2022 08 18 at the Wayback Machine Kann Robert A A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526 1918 University of California Press 1974 online Lieven Dominic Empire The Russian empire and its rivals Yale University Press 2002 comparisons with Russian British amp Ottoman empires Macartney Carlile Aylmer 1969 The Habsburg Empire 1790 1918 Macmillan McCagg Jr William O 1989 A History of the Habsburg Jews 1670 1918 Indiana University Press Mitchell A Wess 2018 The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire Princeton University Press Oakes Elizabeth and Eric Roman 2003 Austria Hungary and the Successor States A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present Sked Alan 1989 The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815 1918 Longman Stone Norman The Last Days of the Habsburg Monarchy History Today Aug 1968 Vol 18 Issue 8 pp 551 560 Steed Henry Wickham et al 1914 A short history of Austria Hungary and Poland Encyclopaedia Britannica Company p 145 Taylor A J P 1964 The Habsburg monarchy 1809 1918 a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria Hungary 2nd ed Penguin Books External linksHabsburg in an email discussion list dealing with the culture and history of the Habsburg Monarchy and its successor states in central Europe since 1500 with discussions syllabi book reviews queries conferences edited daily by scholars since 1994