The early modern period is a historical period that is part of, or (depending on the historian) immediately preceded, the modern period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. There is no exact date that marks the beginning or end of the period and its extent may vary depending on the area of history being studied. In general, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from around the start of the 16th century to the start of the 19th century (about 1500–1800). In a European context, it is defined as the period following the Middle Ages and preceding the advent of modernity; but the dates of these boundaries are far from universally agreed. In the context of global history, the early modern period is often used even in contexts where there is no equivalent "medieval" period.
Various events and historical transitions have been proposed as the start of the early modern period, including the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the start of the Renaissance, the end of the Crusades, the Reformation in Germany giving rise to Protestantism and the beginning of the Age of Discovery and with it the onset of the first wave of European colonization. Its end is often marked by the French Revolution, and sometimes also the American Revolution or Napoleon's rise to power, with the advent of the second wave modern colonization of New Imperialism.
Historians in recent decades have argued that, from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was its spreading globalizing character. New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the period. The early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of mercantilism as an economic theory. Other notable trends of the period include the development of experimental science, increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics, accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design, and the emergence of nation states.
Definition
The early modern period is a subdivision of the most recent of the three major periods of European history: antiquity, the Middle Ages and the modern period. The term "early modern" was first proposed by medieval historian Lynn Thorndike in his 1926 work A Short History of Civilization as a broader alternative to the Renaissance. It was first picked up within the field of economic history during the 1940s and 1950s and gradually spread to other historians in the following decades and became widely known among scholars during the 1990s.
Overview
At the onset of the early modern period, trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. Feudalism declined in Europe, and Christendom saw the end of the Crusades and of religious unity in Western Europe under the Roman Catholic Church. The old order was destabilized by the Protestant Reformation, which caused a backlash that expanded the Inquisition and sparked the disastrous European wars of religion, which included the especially bloody Thirty Years' War and ended with the establishment of the modern international system in the Peace of Westphalia. Along with the European colonization of the Americas, this period also contained the Commercial Revolution and the Golden Age of Piracy. The globalization of the period can be seen in the medieval North Italian city-states and maritime republics, particularly Genoa, Venice, and Milan. Russia reached the Pacific coast in 1647 and consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century. The Great Divergence took place as Western Europe greatly surpassed China in technology and per capita wealth.
As the Age of Revolution dawned, beginning with revolts in America and France, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars and their impact on thought and thinking, from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies. The early period ended in a time of political and economic change, as a result of mechanization in society, the American Revolution, and the first French Revolution; other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna and the peace established by the Second Treaty of Paris, which ended the Napoleonic Wars.
In the Americas, pre-Columbian peoples had built a large and varied civilization, including the Aztec Empire, the Inca civilization, the Maya civilization and its cities, and the Muisca. The European colonization of the Americas began during the early modern period, as did the establishment of European trading hubs in Asia and Africa, which contributed to the spread of Christianity around the world. The rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe, in particular the Columbian Exchange that linked the Old World and the New World, greatly altered the human environment. Notably, the Atlantic slave trade and colonization of Native Americans began during this period. The Ottoman Empire conquered Southeastern Europe, and parts of West Asia and North Africa.
In the Islamic world, after the fall of the Timurid Renaissance, powers such as the Ottoman, Suri, Safavid, and Mughal empires grew in strength (three of which are known as gunpowder empires for the military technology that enabled them). Particularly in the Indian subcontinent, Mughal architecture, culture, and art reached their zenith, while the empire itself is believed to have had the world's largest economy, bigger than the entirety of Western Europe and worth 25% of global GDP. By the mid-18th century, India was a major proto-industrializing region.
Various Chinese dynasties controlled the East Asian sphere. In Japan, the Edo period from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. In Korea, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from the rise of the Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong. By the 16th century, Asian economies under the Ming dynasty and Mughal Bengal were stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch, while Japan engaged in the Nanban trade after the arrival of the first European Portuguese during the Azuchi–Momoyama period.
Meanwhile, in Southeast Asia, the Toungoo Empire along with Ayutthaya experienced a golden age and ruled a large extent of Mainland Southeast Asia, with the Nguyen and Trinh lords de facto ruling the south and north of present-day Vietnam respectively, whereas the Mataram Sultanate was the dominant power in Maritime Southeast Asia. The early modern period experienced an influx of European traders and missionaries into the region.
Asia and Africa
East Asia
In Early Modern times, the major nations of East Asia attempted to pursue a course of isolationism from the outside world but this policy was not always enforced uniformly or successfully. However, by the end of the Early Modern Period, China, Korea and Japan were mostly closed and uninterested in Europeans, even while trading relationships grew in port cities such as Guangzhou and Dejima.
Chinese dynasties
Around the beginning of the ethnically Han Ming dynasty (1368–1644), China was leading the world in mathematics as well as science. However, Europe soon caught up to China's scientific and mathematical achievements and surpassed them. Many scholars have speculated about the reason behind China's lag in advancement. A historian named Colin Ronan claims that though there is no one specific answer, there must be a connection between China's urgency for new discoveries being weaker than Europe's and China's inability to capitalize on its early advantages. Ronan believes that China's Confucian bureaucracy and traditions led to China not having a scientific revolution, which led China to have fewer scientists to break the existing orthodoxies, like Galileo Galilei. Despite inventing gunpowder in the 9th century, it was in Europe that the classic handheld firearms, matchlocks, were invented, with evidence of use around the 1480s. China was using the matchlocks by 1540, after the Portuguese brought their matchlocks to Japan in the early 1500s. China during the Ming Dynasty established a bureau to maintain its calendar. The bureau was necessary because the calendars were linked to celestial phenomena and that needs regular maintenance because twelve lunar months have 344 or 355 days, so occasional leap months have to be added in order to maintain 365 days per year.
In the early Ming dynasty, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. In the 16th century the Ming dynasty flourished over maritime trade with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch Empires. The trade brought in a massive amount of silver, which China at the time needed desperately. Prior to China's global trade, its economy ran on paper money. However, in the 14th century, China's paper money system suffered a crisis, and by the mid-15th century, crashed. The silver imports helped fill the void left by the broken paper money system, which helps explain why the value of silver in China was twice as high as the value of silver in Spain during the end of the 16th century.
China under the later Ming dynasty became isolated, prohibiting the construction of ocean going sea vessels. Despite isolationist policies the Ming economy still suffered from an inflation due to an overabundance of Spanish New World silver entering its economy through new European colonies such as Macau. Ming China was further strained by victorious but costly wars to protect Korea from Japanese invasion. The European trade depression of the 1620s also hurt the Chinese economy, which sunk to the point where all of China's trading partners cut ties with them: Philip IV restricted shipments of exports from Acapulco, the Japanese cut off all trade with Macau, and the Dutch severed connections between Goa and Macau.
The damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient Little Ice Age, natural calamities, crop failure and sudden epidemics. The ensuing breakdown of authority and people's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders, such as Li Zicheng, to challenge Ming authority.
The Ming dynasty fell around 1644 to the ethnically Manchu Qing dynasty, which would be the last dynasty of China. The Qing ruled from 1644 to 1912, with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. During its reign, the Qing dynasty adopted many of the outward features of Chinese culture in establishing its rule, but did not necessarily "assimilate", instead adopting a more universalist style of governance. The Manchus were formerly known as the Jurchens. When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels in 1644, the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China proper. Schoppa, the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues,
"A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."
Japanese shogunates
The Sengoku period that began around 1467 and lasted around a century consisted of several continually "warring states".
Following contact with the Portuguese on Tanegashima Isle in 1543, the Japanese adopted several of the technologies and cultural practices of their visitors, whether in the military area (the arquebus, European-style cuirasses, European ships), religion (Christianity), decorative art, language (integration to Japanese of a Western vocabulary) and culinary: the Portuguese introduced tempura and valuable refined sugar.
Central government was largely reestablished by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the Azuchi–Momoyama period. Although a start date of 1573 is often given, in more broad terms, the period begins with Oda Nobunaga's entry into Kyoto in 1568, when he led his army to the imperial capital in order to install Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the 15th, and ultimately final, shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate, and it lasts until the coming to power of Tokugawa Ieyasu after his victory over supporters of the Toyotomi clan at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Tokugawa received the title of shōgun in 1603, establishing the Tokugawa shogunate.
The Edo period from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate was a feudalist regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shōguns of the Tokugawa clan. The period gets its name from the capital city, Edo, now called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle from 1603 until 1868, when it was abolished during the Meiji Restoration in the late Edo period (often called the Late Tokugawa shogunate).
Society in the Japanese "Tokugawa period" (Edo society), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The daimyōs (feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the Sakoku policy. Literacy among the Japanese people rose in the two centuries of isolation.
In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyōs and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyōs might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.
Korean dynasty
In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) with a largely bloodless coup. Yi Seong-gye moved the capital of Korea to the location of modern-day Seoul. The dynasty was heavily influenced by Confucianism, which also played a large role to shaping Korea's strong cultural identity.King Sejong the Great (1418–1450), one of the only two kings in Korea's history to earn the title of great in their posthumous titles, reclaimed Korean territory to the north and created the Korean alphabet.
During the end of the 16th century, Korea was invaded twice by Japan, first in 1592 and again in 1597. Japan failed both times due to Admiral Yi Sun-sin, Korea's revered naval genius, who led the Korean Navy using advanced metal clad ships called turtle ships. Because the ships were armed with cannons, Admiral Yi's navy was able to demolish the Japanese invading fleets, destroying hundreds of ships in Japan's second invasion. During the 17th century, Korea was invaded again, this time by Manchurians, who would later take over China as the Qing Dynasty. In 1637, King Injo was forced to surrender to the Qing forces, and was ordered to send princesses as concubines to the Qing Prince Dorgon.
South Asia
Indian empires
The rise of the Mughal Empire is usually dated from 1526, around the end of the Middle Ages. It was an Islamic Persianate imperial power that ruled most of the area as Hindustan by the late 17th and the early 18th centuries. The empire dominated South Asia, becoming the largest global economy and manufacturing power, with a nominal GDP valued at a quarter of the global economy, superior than the combined GDP of Europe. The empire, prior to the death of the last prominent emperor Aurangzeb, was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting its different provinces. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterized by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The Maratha Confederacy, founded in the southwest of present-day India, surpassed the Mughals as the dominant power in India from 1740 and rapidly expanded until the Third Battle of Panipat halted their expansion in 1761.
British and Dutch colonization
The development of New Imperialism saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The commercial colonization of India commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company,[citation not found] in 1765, when the company was granted the diwani, or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar, or in 1772, when the company established a capital in Calcutta, appointed its first Governor-General, Warren Hastings, and became directly involved in governance.
The Maratha Confederacy, following the Anglo-Maratha wars, eventually lost to the British East India Company in 1818 with the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Rule by the Company lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and following the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj. In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in its rivalry with the Dutch. However, the rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear.
Southeast Asia
At the start of the modern era, the Spice Route between India and China crossed Majapahit, an archipelagic empire based on the island of Java. It was the last of the major Hindu empires of Maritime Southeast Asia and is considered one of the greatest states in Indonesian history. Its influence extended to Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and eastern Indonesia, though the effectiveness of this influence remains debated. Majapahit struggled to control the rising Sultanate of Malacca, which dominated Muslim Malay settlements in Phuket, Satun, Pattani, and Sumatra. The Portuguese invaded Malacca's capital in 1511, and by 1528, the Sultanate of Johor was established by a Malaccan prince to succeed Malacca.
West Asia and North Africa
Ottoman Empire
During the early modern era, the Ottoman Empire enjoyed an expansion and consolidation of power, leading to a Pax Ottomana. This was perhaps the golden age of the empire. The Ottomans expanded southwest into North Africa while battling with the re-emergent Persian Shi'a Safavid Empire to the east.
North Africa
In the Ottoman sphere, the Turks seized Egypt in 1517 and established the regencies of Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripolitania (between 1519 and 1551), Morocco remaining an independent Arabized Berber state under the Sharifan dynasty.
Safavid Iran
The Safavid Empire was a great Shia Persianate empire after the Islamic conquest of Persia and the establishment of Islam, marking an important point in the history of Islam in the east. The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501. From their base in Ardabil, the Safavids established control over all of Persia and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the Sassanids to establish a unified Iranian state. Problematic for the Safavids was the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, a Sunni dynasty, fought several campaigns against the Safavids.
What fueled the growth of Safavid economy was its position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north. The Silk Road, which led from Europe to East Asia, revived in the 16th century. Leaders also supported direct sea trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands, which sought Persian carpet, silk, and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls, and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cotton from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar. Despite their demise in 1722, the Safavids left their mark by establishing and spreading Shi'a Islam in major parts of the Caucasus and West Asia.
Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns
In the 16th to early 18th centuries, Central Asia was under the rule of Uzbeks, and the far eastern portions were ruled by the local Pashtuns. Between the 15th and 16th centuries, various nomadic tribes arrived from the steppes, including the Kipchaks, Naimans, Kangly, Khongirad, and Manghuds. These groups were led by Muhammad Shaybani, who was the Khan of the Uzbeks.
The lineage of the Afghan Pashtuns stretches back to the Hotaki dynasty. Following Muslim Arab and Turkic conquests, Pashtun ghazis (warriors for the faith) invaded and conquered much of northern India during the Lodhi dynasty and Suri dynasty. Pashtun forces also invaded Persia, and the opposing forces were defeated in the Battle of Gulnabad. The Pashtuns later formed the Durrani Empire.
Sub-Saharan Africa
The Songhai Empire took control of the trans-Saharan trade at the beginning of the modern era. It seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building the regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. The empire eventually made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars to Gao.
Europe
Many major events caused Europe to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of Muslim Spain and the discovery of the Americas in 1492, and Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation in 1517. In England the modern period is often dated to the start of the Tudor period with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.
The early modern period is taken to end with the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, and the Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire at the Congress of Vienna. At the end of the early modern period, the British and Russian empires had emerged as world powers from the multipolar contest of colonial empires, while the three great Asian empires of the early modern period, Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India and Qing China, all entered a period of stagnation or decline.
Gunpowder and firearms
When gunpowder was introduced to Europe, it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare. Though it was invented in China, gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use; European countries took advantage of this and were the first to create the classic firearms. The advances made in gunpowder and firearms was directly tied to the decline in the use of plate armor because of the inability of the armor to protect one from bullets. The musket was able to penetrate all forms of armor available at the time, making armor obsolete, and as a consequence the heavy musket as well. Although there is relatively little to no difference in design between arquebus and musket except in size and strength, it was the term musket which remained in use up into the 1800s.
European kingdoms and movements
In the early modern period, the Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe under a Holy Roman Emperor the first of which was Otto I. The last was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders.
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that began in the 14th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform.
Notable individuals
Johannes Gutenberg is credited as the first European to use movable type printing, around 1439, and as the global inventor of the mechanical printing press. Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology (1543), which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. His book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) began modern astronomy and sparked the Scientific Revolution. Another notable individual was Machiavelli, an Italian political philosopher, considered a founder of modern political science. Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise, The Prince, a work of realist political theory. The Swiss Paracelsus (1493–1541) is associated with a medical revolution while the Anglo-Irish Robert Boyle was one of the founders of modern chemistry. In visual arts, notable representatives included the "three giants of the High Renaissance", namely Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael,Albrecht Dürer (often considered the greatest artist of Northern Renaissance),Titian from the Venetian school,Peter Paul Rubens of the Flemish Baroque traditions. Famous composers included Guillaume Du Fay, Heinrich Isaac, Josquin des Prez, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Claudio Monteverdi, Jean-Baptiste Lully.
Among the notable royalty of the time was Charles the Bold (1433–1477), the last Valois Duke of Burgundy, known as Charles the Bold (or Rash) to his enemies, His early death was a pivotal moment in European history. Charles has often been regarded as the last representative of the feudal spirit, although in administrative affairs, he introduced remarkable modernizing innovations. Upon his death, Charles left an unmarried nineteen-year-old daughter, Mary of Burgundy, as his heir. Her marriage would have enormous implications for the political balance of Europe. Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor secured the match for his son, the future Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, with the aid of Mary's stepmother, Margaret. In 1477, the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France. In the same year, Mary married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. A conflict between the Burgundian side (Maximilian brought with himself almost no resources from the Empire) and France ensued, culminating in the Treaty of Senlis (1493) which gave the majority of Burgundian inheritance to the Habsburg (Mary already died in 1482). The rise of the Habsburg dynasty was a prime factor in the spreading of the Renaissance.
In Central Europe, King Matthias Corvinus (1443–1490), a notable nation builder, conqueror (Hungary in his time was the most powerful in Central Europe) and patron, was the first who introduced the Renaissance outside of Italy. In military area, he introduced the Black Army, one of the first standing armies in Europe and a remarkably modern force.
Some noblemen from the generation that lived during this period have been attributed the moniker "the last knight", with the most notable being the above-mentioned Maximilian I (1459–1519),Chevalier de Bayard (1476–1524),Franz von Sickingen (1481–1523) and Götz von Berlichingen (1480–1562). Maximilian (although Claude Michaud opines that he could claim "last knight" status by virtue of being the last medieval epic poet) was actually a chief modernizing force of the time (whose reform initiatives led to Europe-wide revolutions in the areas of warfare and communications,among others), who broke the back of the knight class (causing many to become robber barons) and had personal conflicts with the three other men on the matter of the knight's status.
Christians and Christendom
Christianity was challenged at the beginning of the modern period with the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and later by various movements to reform the church (including Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinist), followed by the Counter Reformation.
End of the Crusades and Unity
The Hussite Crusades (1419–1434) involved military actions against the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia, concluding with the Battle of Grotniki. These wars were notable for being among the first European conflicts where hand-held gunpowder weapons, like muskets, played a decisive role. The Taborite faction of Hussite warriors, primarily infantry, decisively defeated larger armies with heavily armored knights, contributing to the infantry revolution. However, the Hussite Crusades were ultimately inconclusive.
The final crusade, the Crusade of 1456, was organized to counter the advancing Ottoman Empire and lift the Siege of Belgrade (1456), led by John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano. The siege culminated in a counterattack that forced Sultan Mehmet II to retreat, with the victory being credited with deciding the fate of Christendom. The noon bell, ordered by Pope Callixtus III, commemorates this victory across the Christian world to this day.
Nearly a century later, the Peace of Augsburg (1555) ended the concept of a united Christian church. The principle of cuius regio, eius religio allowed rulers to determine their state's religion. This framework was solidified by the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which ended the European Wars of Religion and the notion of a singular Christian hegemony. The treaty also marked the birth of the modern concept of national sovereignty.
Inquisitions and Reformations
The Inquisition in the modern era refers to several institutions within the Catholic Church tasked with prosecuting heretics and others who violated canon law. The first significant manifestation was the Spanish Inquisition (1478–1834). The Inquisition prosecuted crimes such as sorcery, blasphemy, Judaizing, witchcraft, and censorship of printed literature. Its jurisdiction was limited to baptized Catholics, while non-Christians were typically tried by secular courts.
The Reformation and rise of modernity in the early 16th century brought changes to Christendom. The Augustinian friar Martin Luther in Germany challenged the Church with his Ninety-five Theses, marking the start of the Reformation. Luther's movement, supported by the Electorate of Saxony, developed at the University of Wittenberg, where he became a professor.
Luther's 95 Theses criticized practices like the sale of indulgences and sparked debates, leading to the rise of rival Protestant denominations, such as Lutheranism and the Reformed tradition. In England, the movement became known as the English Reformation, resulting in the formation of Anglicanism.
The Diet of Worms (1521) declared Luther a heretic, but Emperor Charles V was preoccupied with external threats and allowed German princes to decide whether to enforce the Edict of Worms. The religious conflict escalated, leading to the formation of the Schmalkaldic League to defend Protestant interests. This culminated in the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio—allowing rulers to determine the religion of their territories.
Two main Inquisitions remained active in the modern era:
- The Portuguese Inquisition (1536–1821), similar to the Spanish Inquisition.
- The Roman Inquisition (1542–circa 1860), covering most of the Italian peninsula and certain other areas.
The Counter-Reformation began in 1545 with the Council of Trent in response to the Protestant Reformation. Its goal was to reform internal Church practices while reaffirming the Church's authority as the true Church of Christ.
Tsardom of Russia
In development of the Third Rome ideas, the Grand Duke Ivan IV (the "Awesome" or "the Terrible") was officially crowned the first Tsar ("Caesar") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions. During his long reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated Golden Horde): Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River, and Sibirean Khanate in South Western Siberia. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a multiethnic, multiconfessional and transcontinental state.
Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of Cossacks. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World. The native land of the Cossacks is defined by a line of Russian/Ruthenian town-fortresses located on the border with the steppe and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts.
Mercantile capitalism
Trade and the new economy
In the Old World, the most desired trading goods were gold, silver, and spices. Western Europeans used the compass, new sailing ship technologies, new maps, and advances in astronomy to seek a viable trade route to Asia for valuable spices that Mediterranean powers could not contest.
Piracy's Golden Age
The Golden Age of Piracy is a designation given to one or more outbursts of piracy in the early modern period, spanning from the mid-17th century to the mid-18th century. The buccaneering period covers approximately the late 17th century. This period was characterized by Anglo-French seamen based in Jamaica and Tortuga attacking Spanish colonies and shipping in the Caribbean and eastern Pacific. The Pirate Round was a route followed by certain Anglo-American pirates in the early 18th century, involving voyages from Bermuda and the Americas to attack Muslim and East India Company ships in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. The post-War of the Spanish Succession period saw many unemployed sailors and privateers turning to piracy in the Caribbean, the American eastern seaboard, West Africa, and the Indian Ocean.
European states and politics
The 15th to 18th century period is marked by the first European colonies, the rise of strong centralized governments, and the beginnings of recognizable European nation states that are the direct antecedents of today's states. Although the Renaissance included revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for European artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".
The Peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern diplomatic congress. Until 1806, the regulations became part of the constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire. The Treaty of the Pyrenees, signed in 1659, ended the war between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord.
French power
Men who featured prominently in the political and military life of France during this period include Mazarin, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Turenne, Vauban. French culture likewise flourished during this era, producing a number of figures of great renown, including Molière, Racine, Boileau, La Fontaine, Lully, Le Brun, Rigaud, Louis Le Vau, Jules Hardouin Mansart, Claude Perrault and Le Nôtre.
Early English revolutions
Before the Age of Revolution, the English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first and second civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent. The English Restoration, or simply put as the Restoration, began in 1660 when the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were all restored under Charles II after the Commonwealth of England that followed the English Civil War. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 establishes modern parliamentary democracy in England.
International balance of power
The Peace of Utrecht established after a series of individual peace treaties signed in the Dutch city of Utrecht concluded between various European states helped end the War of the Spanish Succession. The representatives who met were Louis XIV of France and Philip V of Spain on the one hand, and representatives of Queen Anne of Great Britain, the Duke of Savoy, and the United Provinces on the other. The treaty enregistered the defeat of French ambitions expressed in the wars of Louis XIV and preserved the European system based on the balance of power. The Treaty of Utrecht marked the change from Dutch to British naval supremacy.
Americas
The term colonialism is normally used with reference to discontiguous overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise. European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity to Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, Australia and the Philippines.
Exploration and conquest of the Americas
Colonial Latin America
Initially, Portuguese settlements (Brazil) in the coastal northeast were of lesser importance in the larger Portuguese overseas empire, where lucrative commerce and small settlements devoted to trade were established in coastal Africa, India and China. With sparse indigenous populations that could not be coerced to work and no known deposits of precious metals, Portugal sought a high-value, low-bulk export product and found it in sugarcane. Black African slave labour from Portugal's West African possessions was imported to do the grueling agricultural work. As the wealth of the Ibero-America increased, some Western European powers (Dutch, French, British, Danish) sought to duplicate the model in areas that the Iberians had not settled in numbers. They seized some Caribbean islands from the Spanish and transferred the model of sugar production on plantations with slave labour and settled in northern areas of North America in what are now the Eastern Seaboard of the United States and Canada.
Colonial North America
North America outside the zone of Spanish settlement was a contested area in the 17th century. Spain had founded small settlements in Florida and Georgia, but nowhere near the size of those in New Spain or the Caribbean islands. France, The Netherlands, and Great Britain held colonies in North America and the West Indies from the 17th century, 100 years after the Spanish and Portuguese established permanent colonies. The British colonies in North America were founded between 1607 (Virginia) and 1733 (Georgia). The Dutch explored the east coast of North America and began founding settlements in what they called New Netherland (now New York State.). France colonized what is now Eastern Canada, founding Quebec City in 1608. France's loss in the Seven Years' War resulted in the transfer of New France to Great Britain.
The Thirteen Colonies, in lower British North America, rebelled against British rule through 1765-1783, due to various factors such as belief in natural rights, the enforcement of new taxes levied by a Parliament which they could not vote for representatives in, and opposition to monarchy. The British colonies in Canada remained loyal to the crown, and a provisional government formed by the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed their independence on 4 July 1776, and subsequently became the original 13 United States of America. With the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutionary War, Britain recognised the former Thirteen Colonies' independence.
Atlantic World
A key development in early modern history is the creation of the Atlantic World as a category. The term generally encompasses Western Europe, West Africa, and the Americas. It seeks to illustrate both local and regional developments, as well as the connections between these geographical regions through trade, migration, and cultural exchange.
Religion, science, philosophy, and education
Protestant Reformation
The early modern period was initiated by the Reformation and the collapse of the unity of the medieval Western Church. The theology of Calvinism in particular has been argued as instrumental to the rise of capitalism. Max Weber has written a highly influential book on this called The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
Counter-Reformation and Jesuits
The Counter-Reformation was a period of Catholic revival in response to the Reformation during the mid-16th to mid-17th centuries. The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, involving ecclesiastical reforms as well as political and spiritual movements.
Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ, including the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. It also involved political activities that included the Roman Inquisition.
New religious orders were a fundamental part of this trend. Orders such as the Capuchins, Ursulines, Theatines, Discalced Carmelites, the Barnabites, and especially the Jesuits strengthened rural parishes, improved popular piety, helped to curb corruption within the church, and set examples that would be a strong impetus for Catholic renewal.
Scientific Revolution
The Great Divergence in scientific discovery, technological innovation, and economic development began in the early modern period as the pace of change in Western countries increased significantly compared to the rest of the world.
During the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, empiricism and modern science replaced older methods of studying nature, which had relied on ancient texts by writers like Aristotle. By the time of the Revolution, these methods resulted in an accumulation of knowledge that overturned ideas inherited from Ancient Greece and Islamic scholars. Major changes during the Scientific Revolution and the 18th century included:
- The ancient geocentric model of the solar system (the other planets circle the Earth) was replaced by the heliocentrism (the planets circle the Sun). This shift, known as the Copernican Revolution, is marked by the 1543 publication of Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Copernicus' work, influenced by earlier scholars such as Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi, sparked a significant paradigm shift. The Catholic Church resisted this theory, and the Inquisition famously imprisoned Galileo Galilei for promoting it.
- Using precise astronomical observations by Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler developed Kepler's laws of planetary motion, demonstrating that planets move in ellipses rather than perfect circles. The idea that the stars were fixed on celestial spheres was replaced by the idea that stars are distant suns. Astrology and astronomy began to separate into different disciplines, with only astronomy using scientific methods. Telescope technology improved tremendously as did the study of optics.
- Aristotle's laws of motion were replaced by Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. The 1687 publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica is often used to mark the end of the Scientific Revolution, as it established the fundamental laws of physics that would dominate scientific thinking for centuries.
- Advances in anatomy were marked by the publication of De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (1543) by Andreas Vesalius, which revolutionized the understanding of human anatomy and corrected errors in the works of Galen. In 1628, William Harvey's De Motu Cordis advanced knowledge of the circulatory system.
- Both the 8th century Islamic experimenter Jabir ibn Hayyan and the 17th century scientist Robert Boyle have been described as founders of modern chemistry. Both worked as alchemists before the fields were clearly separated. Boyle argued for corpuscularianism in the 1661 book The Sceptical Chymist and discovered Boyle's law of gases. The chemical revolution followed with the discovery of the conservation of mass, which led to the rejection of phlogiston theory and the identification of chemical elements.
- Modern scientific dentistry was founded by Pierre Fauchard, who is credited with pioneering dental techniques in his 1728 work Le Chirurgien Dentiste.
- The smallpox vaccine was invented in the 1770s and popularized by Edward Jenner in the 1790s, though it was unclear at the time how it worked.
- The ancient theory of spontaneous generation remained dominant throughout the early modern period, but the history of evolutionary thought includes some who questioned the strictest form of this dogma. The idea of partial common descent was famously promoted by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. Evolution was not fully articulated and accepted until the 19th century.
- The invention of the microscope led to the development of microbiology, with early observations of microorganisms by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 1670s.
- Carl Linnaeus published the first modern taxonomy in Systema Naturae (1735), introducing the classification of organisms into hierarchical categories and replacing Aristotle's ideas.
- Early modern geology was established with the work of Nicolas Steno, who proposed the law of superposition in 1669, and the systematic study of fossils and rock types began to question the biblical age of the Earth.
- Early developments in the history of electromagnetism included research into the relationship between electricity and magnetism, the development of the electrostatic generator, and the discovery of Coulomb's law in 1784, which described the force between electric charges.
In the social sciences:
- Historical linguistics began in the late 18th century, with William Jones identifying the common origin of what are now called Indo-European languages.
- The fields of anthropology and paleoanthropology emerged in the 18th century, but much of early modern anthropology is now considered scientific racism.
- Adam Smith's work, such as his seminal book The Wealth of Nations, has been interpreted as the foundation of classical economics.
Technology
Inventions of the early modern period included the floating dock, lifting tower, newspaper, grenade musket, lightning rod, bifocals, and Franklin stove. Early attempts at building a practical electrical telegraph were hindered because static electricity was the only source available.
Enlightenment and reason
The Age of Enlightenment is also called the Age of Reason because it marked a departure from the medieval tradition of scholasticism, which was rooted in Christian dogma, and from Renaissance philosophy's occultist approaches. Instead, reason became the central source of knowledge, initiating the era of modern philosophy, especially in Western philosophy. This period in Europe was characterized by system-builders—philosophers who established unified theories of epistemology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, and sometimes even politics and the physical sciences.
Early 17th-century philosophy is often referred to as the Age of Rationalism, succeeding Renaissance philosophy and preceding the Enlightenment. Some consider it the earliest part of the Enlightenment, stretching over two centuries. This era includes the works of Isaac Newton (1643–1727), such as Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), and the development of Descartes' famous proposition Cogito, ergo sum (1637). The first major advancements in modern science included Newton's theory of gravity, which, along with the contributions of John Locke, Pierre Bayle, Baruch Spinoza, and others, fueled the Enlightenment.
The 18th century saw the rise of secularization in Europe, notably following the French Revolution. Immanuel Kant classified his predecessors into two philosophical schools: Rationalism and Empiricism. The former was represented by figures such as René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz.Roger Williams established the colony of Providence Plantations in New England on the principle of separation of church and state after being exiled by the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
French salon culture played a key role in spreading Enlightenment ideas, culminating in the influential Encyclopédie (1751–72), edited by Denis Diderot with contributions from thinkers such as Voltaire and Montesquieu. The Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns stirred debate within the French Academy, elevating contemporary knowledge over classical Greek and Roman wisdom. Enlightenment thought also significantly influenced German philosophy, fostered by Frederick the Great, with Immanuel Kant emerging as a leading figure. These developments also had profound impacts on the Scottish Enlightenment, Russian Enlightenment, Enlightenment in Spain, and Enlightenment in Poland. The Enlightenment flourished until around 1790–1800, after which the emphasis on reason gave way to Romanticism and the growing influence of Counter-Enlightenment movements.
Humanism
With the adoption of large-scale printing after 1500, Italian Renaissance Humanism spread northward to France, Germany, Holland and England, where it became associated with the Reformation.
Developing during the Enlightenment era, Renaissance humanism as an intellectual movement spread across Europe. The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write (typically, in the form of a letter). The term umanista comes from the latter part of the 15th century. The people were associated with the studia humanitatis, a novel curriculum that was competing with the quadrivium and scholastic logic.
In France, pre-eminent Humanist Guillaume Budé (1467–1540) applied the philological methods of Italian Humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history, composing a detailed commentary on Justinian's Code. Although a royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti), Budé was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for Francis I and helping to found the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux (later the Collège de France). Meanwhile, Marguerite de Navarre, the sister of Francis I, herself a poet, novelist and religious mystic, gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including Clément Marot, Pierre de Ronsard and François Rabelais.
Death in the early modern period
Mortality rates
During the early modern period, thorough and accurate global data on mortality rates is limited for a number of reasons including disparities in medical practices and views on the dead. However, there still remains data from European countries that still holds valuable information on the mortality rates of infants during this era. In his book Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900, Tommy Bengtsson provides adequate information pertaining to the data of infant mortality rates in European countries as well as provide necessary contextual influences on these mortality rates.
European infant mortality rates
Infant mortality was a global concern during the early modern period as many newborns would not survive into childhood. Bengsston provides comparative data on infant mortality averages in a variety of European towns, cities, regions and countries starting from the mid-1600s to the 1800s. These statistics are measured for infant deaths within the first month of every 1,000 births in a given area.
For instance, the average infant mortality rate in what is now Germany was 108 infant deaths for every 1,000 births; in Bavaria, there were 140–190 infant deaths reported for every 1,000 births. In France, Beauvaisis reported 140–160 infants dying per every 1,000 babies born. In what is now Italy, Venice averaged 134 infant deaths per 1,000 births. In Geneva, 80–110 infants died per every 1,000 babies born. In Sweden, 70–95 infants died per 1,000 births in Linköping, 48 infants died per 1,000 births in Sundsvall, and 41 infants died per 1,000 births in Vastanfors.
Causes of infant mortality
Bengsston writes that climate conditions were the most important factor in determining infant mortality rates: "For the period from birth to the fifth birthday, [climate] is clearly the most important determinant of death". Winters proved to be harsh on families and their newborns, especially if the other seasons of the year were warmer. This seasonal drop in temperature was a lot for an infant's body to adapt to.
For instance, Italy is home to a very warm climate in the summer, and the temperature drops immensely in the winter. This lends context to Bengsston writing that "the [Italian] winter peak was the cruelest: during the first 10 days of life, a newborn was four times more likely to die than in the summer". According to Bengsston, this trend existed amongst cities in different parts of Italy and in various parts of Europe even though cities operated under different economic and agricultural conditions. This leads Bengsston to his conclusion on what may have caused mortality rates in infants to spike during winter: "The strong protective effect of summer for neonatal deaths leads us to suppose that in many cases, these might be due to the insufficient heating systems of the houses or to the exposure of the newborn to cold during the baptism ceremony. This last hypothesis could explain why the effect was so strong in Italy".
Capital punishment
During the early modern period, many societies' views on death changed greatly. With the implementation of new torture techniques, and increased public executions, people began to give more value to their life, and their body after death. Along with the views on death, methods of execution also changed. New devices to torture and execute criminals were invented. The number of criminals executed by gibbeting increased, as did the total rate of executions during the early modern period.
See also
- Cuisine in the early modern world
- Early modern warfare
- Periodization
- Price revolution
- Proto-globalization
References
- Christopher Alan Bayly, The birth of the modern world, 1780–1914: global connections and comparisons (2004). P. 123.
- de Vries, Jan (14 September 2009). "The limits of globalization in the early modern world". The Economic History Review. 63 (3): 710–733. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.186.2862. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x. JSTOR 40929823. S2CID 219969360. SSRN 1635517.
- de Vries, Jan (14 September 2009). "The limits of globalization in the early modern world". The Economic History Review. 63 (3): 710–733. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.186.2862. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x. JSTOR 40929823. S2CID 219969360. SSRN 1635517.
- Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. (2021). What is Early Modern History?. Cambridge: Polity. ISBN 978-1-509-54057-0.
- Maddison, Angus (2001), The World Economy, Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective, OECD Publishing, pp. 51–52.
- Crawley, C.W. (1965). The new Cambridge modern history. Volume 9., War and peace in an age of upheaval, 1793–1830. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[page needed]
- Goldman, E.O., & Eliason, L.C. (2003). The diffusion of military technology and ideas. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.[page needed]
- Boot, M. (2006). War made new: Technology, warfare, and the course of history, 1500 to today. New York: Gotham Books.[page needed]
- Bloy, Marjie (30 April 2002). "The Congress of Vienna, 1 November 1814 – 8 June 1815". The Victorian Web. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2009.
- Hazen, Charles Downer (1910). Europe since 1815. American historical series, H. Holt and Company.[page needed]
- Taylor, Alan (2001). American Colonies. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-200210-0.
- "Ottoman Empire". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 26 April 2008. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
- Maddison, Angus (2003): Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics, OECD Publishing, ISBN 9264104143, pp. 259–261
- Roy, Tirthankar (2010). "The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India". In Lex Heerma van Voss; Els Hiemstra-Kuperus; Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk (eds.). The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000. Ashgate Publishing. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-7546-6428-4. Archived from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
- Lieberman, Victor B. (2003). Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge University Press. pp. 150–154. ISBN 978-0-521-80496-7.
- Wyatt, David K. (2003). Thailand : A Short History (2nd ed.). Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. pp. 109–110. ISBN 974957544X.
- Chapuis, Oscar. A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tự Đức. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995. p. 119. Archived 11 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Needham, Joseph (1956). "Mathematics and Science in China and the West". Science & Society. 20 (4): 320–343. JSTOR 40400462. ProQuest 1296937594.
- Bala, A. (2006). The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-60121-5.[page needed]
- Andrade, Tonio (2016). The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-7444-6.[page needed]
- Elman, Benjamin A. (2005). On Their Own Terms. Harvard University Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 0-674-01685-8.
- Flynn, Dennis O.; Giraldez, Arturo (1995). "Arbitrage, China, and World Trade in the Early Modern Period". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 38 (4): 429–448. doi:10.1163/1568520952600308. JSTOR 3632434.
- Frank, Andre Gunder (1998). ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age. Berkeley: University of California Press. hdl:2027/heb.31038.0001.001. ISBN 978-0520214743.
- "The Ming Voyages | Asia for Educators | Columbia University". afe.easia.columbia.edu. Archived from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
- "Chapter 8 The New World". mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu. Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
- Barraclough, Geoffrey (2003). HarperCollins Atlas of World History. HarperCollins. pp. 168–169. ISBN 978-0-681-50288-8. OCLC 56350180.
- Wakeman, Frederic E. (1986). "China and the Seventeenth-Century Crisis". Late Imperial China. 7 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1353/late.1986.0006. S2CID 143899868.
- Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2000). "Conquest and the Blessing of the Past". A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology. University of California Press. pp. 26–36. ISBN 978-0-520-92884-8. Archived from the original on 12 August 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2020.
- R. Keith Schoppa (2000). The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History. Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-50037-1. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
- Goldstein, Darra; Merkle, Kathrin; Mennell, Stephen (2006). Culinary Cultures of Europe: Identity, Diversity and Dialogue. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. p. 350. ISBN 978-9-28715-744-7.
- Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan (First edition, 1983), section "Azuchi-Momoyama History (1568–1600)" by George Elison, in the entry for "history of Japan".[page needed]
- Henshall, Kenneth (2014). Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-81087-872-3.
- Barraclough, Geoffrey (2003). HarperCollins atlas of world history. Borders Press in association with HarperCollins. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-681-50288-8. OCLC 56350180.
- Sansom, George Bailey (1998). Japan: A Short Cultural History. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 364. ISBN 978-0-80470-954-5.
- Lee, Lawrence (21 March 2014). "Honoring the Joseon Dynasty". The Wall Street Journal Asia. p. 8. ProQuest 1508838378.
- Tae-gyu, Kim (15 April 2012). "Joseon: Korea's Confucian kingdom". The Korea Times. ProQuest 1990220190.
- Tae-gyu, Kim (29 May 2012). "Joseon: Korea's Confucian kingdom". The Korea Times. ProQuest 1990192832.
- Lee, Iksop; Ramsey, S. Robert (2001). The Korean Language. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-79149-130-0.
- Wakeman, Frederic E. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520048041. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
- L. Canfield, Robert; Jonathan Haas (2002). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-52291-5.
- "Manas: History and Politics, Mughals". Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
- Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011). Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–45. ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0. Archived from the original on 21 November 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
- Lawrence E. Harrison, Peter L. Berger (2006). Developing cultures: case studies. Routledge. p. 158. ISBN 978-0415952798. Archived from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- "Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)". bbc.co.uk. London: BBC. Section 5: Aurangzeb. Archived from the original on 10 November 2010. Retrieved 18 October 2010.
- Wadley, Susan S. (2015). South Asia in the World: An Introduction. London: Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-31745-959-0.
- Bose & Jalal 2003, p. 76
- Brown, Judith Margaret (1994). Modern India: the origins of an Asian democracy. Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-873112-2. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
- Peers, Douglas M. (2006). India under colonial rule: 1700–1885. Pearson Education. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-582-31738-3. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
- Metcalf, Barbara Daly; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006). A concise history of modern India. Cambridge University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-521-86362-9. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
- "Official, India". World Digital Library. 1890–1923. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
- M.C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300, 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991. page 19
- Pigeaud, Theodore G. Th. (1963). "Alphabetical Index of Subjects Treated in Volumes II–V". Java in the 14th Century. Springer Netherlands. pp. 29–46. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-8778-7_3. ISBN 978-94-011-8778-7.
- Resink, Gertrudes Johan (1968). Indonesia's History Between the Myths: Essays in Legal History and Historical Theory. Van Hoeve. p. 21. ISBN 978-90-200-7468-0.
- Reid, Anthony (1993). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: Volume Two, Expansion and Crisis. Yale University Press.
- The Holy Land, 1517-1713. Brill. 2012. p. 4. ISBN 978-90-04-23624-0.
From Selim's conquest until the early eighteenth century, which marked the beginning of British and French domination of the Mediterranean Sea routes, the region witnessed what Rhoads Murphey [an Ottoman Studies professor] has described as the pax Ottomanica.
- Király, Béla K., ed. (1975). "The Ottoman aspects of Pax Ottomanica". Tolerance and movements of religious dissent in Eastern Europe. East European Quarterly. ISBN 978-0-914710-06-6.
- Muzaffar Husain Syed; Syed Saud Akhtar; B D Usmani (2011). Concise History of Islam. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 150. ISBN 978-93-82573-47-0. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
- Abu Rehab, Mohammad (9 May 2014). دراسة في مضمون النقوش الكتابية علي عمائر الأشراف السعديين بالمغرب الأقصي(915-1069هــ/1510-1658م) [A Study on the Content of the Inscriptions on the Buildings of the Sharifian Saadi Dynasty of Morocco (During the Period between AH 915–1069/151069/1510–1658 CE)]. Abgadiyat. 9 (1): 150–194. doi:10.1163/22138609-90000027. ISSN 2213-8609.
- Stanford Jay Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. 1977, p. 77.
- Andrew J. Newman, Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, IB Tauris (30 March 2006).
- Kia, Mehrdad (2017). The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 131. ISBN 978-1610693899.
In October 1638 Ottoman forces returned to Mesopotamia, stormed Baghdad, and captured the city in December despite sustaining heavy casualties. These included the grand vizier, who "was killed leading the assault" (Sykes: 2:211). The Safavids were forced to sue for peace. On May 17, 1639 the Ottoman Empire and Iran signed a treaty (...)
- Paul Bairoch (1995). Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes. University of Chicago Press. p. 107. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
- Afghanistan: History Archived 13 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Department of State (retrieved 10 October 2006).
- Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge 1988
- Helen Miller, Aubrey Newman. Early modern British history, 1485–1760: a select bibliography, Historical Association, 1970
- Early Modern Period (1485–1800) Archived 6 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Sites Organized by Period, Rutgers University Libraries
- Chase, Kenneth (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-521-82274-9.
- "Online Etymology Dictionary". Archived from the original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
- A Greek mathematician, Aristarchus of Samos, had already discussed heliocentric hypotheses as early as the third century BCE. However, there is little evidence that he ever developed his ideas beyond a very basic outline (Dreyer, 1953, pp. 135–148; Linton, 2004, p. 39).
- Wexler, Philip (2017). Toxicology in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Academic Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-12-809559-1. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Levere, Trevor H. (2001). Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball. JHU Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8018-6610-4. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Corrain, Lucia (2008). The Art of the Renaissance. The Oliver Press, Inc. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-934545-04-1. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Strickland, Carol; Boswell, John (2007). The Annotated Mona Lisa: A Crash Course in Art History from Prehistoric to Post-Modern. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-6872-9. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Celinscak, Mark; Hutt, Curtis (2021). Artistic Representations of Suffering: Rights, Resistance, and Remembrance. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-5381-5292-8. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Carl, Klaus H.; Manca, Joseph; McShane, Megan (2016). 30 Millennia of Painting. Parkstone International. p. 412. ISBN 978-1-68325-359-4. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Sporre, Dennis J. (1990). The Creative Impulse: An Introduction to the Arts. Prentice-Hall. p. 283. ISBN 978-0-13-189754-0. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
- Jones, Barrie (2014). The Hutchinson Concise Dictionary of Music. Routledge. p. 478. ISBN 978-1-135-95018-7. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
- The title was derived from his savage behavior against his enemies, and particularly from a war with France in late 1471: frustrated by the refusal of the French to engage in open battle, and angered by French attacks on his unprotected borders in Hainault and Flanders, Charles marched his army back from the Ile-de-France to Burgundian territory, burning over two thousand towns, villages and castles on his way—Taylor, Aline S. Isabel of Burgundy. Lanham, Md: Madison Books, c2001, pp. 212–213
- Wingfield, George (2009). Belgium. Infobase Publishing. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-4381-0486-7. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Mead, Walter Russell (2014). God and Gold: Britain, America and the Making of the Modern World. Atlantic Books. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-78239-600-0. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Cartellieri, Otto (2013). The Court of Burgundy. Routledge. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-136-20406-7. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Vaughan, Richard; Paravicini, Werner (2002). Charles the Bold: The Last Valois Duke of Burgundy. Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0-85115-918-8. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Berenger, Jean; Simpson, C. A. (2014). A History of the Habsburg Empire 1273–1700. Routledge. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-317-89570-1. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Gunn, Steven; Grummitt, David; Cools, Hans (2007). War, State, and Society in England and the Netherlands 1477–1559. OUP Oxford. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-19-152588-9. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Johnson 2013, p. 78.
- Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (2013). Northern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-136-63944-9. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Vagnoni, Mirko (2020). Royal Divine Coronation Iconography in the Medieval Euro-Mediterranean Area. MDPI. p. 19. ISBN 978-3-03943-751-1. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Johnson, Paul (2013). The Renaissance. Orion. p. 78. ISBN 978-1-78022-716-0. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Morrison, Elspeth (2007). The Dorothy Dunnett Companion: Volume II. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-307-42844-8. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Bulliet, Richard W. (2016). The Wheel: Inventions and Reinventions. Columbia University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-231-54061-2. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Terjanian, Pierre, ed. (2019). The Last Knight: The Art, Armor, and Ambition of Maximilian I. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-674-7. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Gal, Stéphane; Bayard, Amis de (2007). Bayard: histoires croisées du chevalier (in French). Presses universitaires de Grenoble. p. 75. ISBN 978-2-7061-1420-5. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreis Kaiserslautern, Historischer Verein der Pfalz (1984). Jahrbuch zur Geschichte von Stadt und Landkreis Kaiserslautern (in German). Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreis Kaiserslautern, Historischer Verein der Pfalz. p. 197. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Durian-Ress, Saskia (1993). Badische Burgen aus romantischer Sicht: Auswahl aus den Beständen des Augustinermuseums (in German). Rombach. p. 96. ISBN 978-3-7930-0678-7. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Michaud, Claude (1996). "Hispania- Austria. Die Katholischen Könige, Maximilian I. und die Anfänge der Casa de Austria in Spanien/Los Reyes Catolicos, Maximiliano I. y los inicios de la Casa de Austria en España". Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine. 43 (2): 371–373. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
- Brunner, Jean-Claude (2012). "Historical Introduction". Medieval Warfare. 2 (3, "The revival of infantry tactics in the Late Middle Ages (2012)"): 6–9. JSTOR 48578016. Archived from the original on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Kersken, Uwe (2014). "Die letzten ihrer Art". Die Welt der Ritter. Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen(zdf).
- Axelrod, Alan (2013). Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies. CQ Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-1483364674. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
- Metzig, Gregor (2016). Kommunikation und Konfrontation: Diplomatie und Gesandtschaftswesen Kaiser Maximilians I. (1486–1519) (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 98, 99. ISBN 978-3-11-045673-8. Archived from the original on 28 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- Turnbull, Stephen (2018). The Art of Renaissance Warfare: From The Fall of Constantinople to the Thirty Years War. Casemate Publishers. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-5267-1377-3. Archived from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
- Ninness, Richard J. (2020). German Imperial Knights: Noble Misfits between Princely Authority and the Crown, 1479–1648. Routledge. pp. 65, 91. ISBN 978-1-000-28504-8. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022.
- Howard Kaminsky (2004). The Hussite Revolution, 1419–1436. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226424903.
- "Pope Calixtus III on the victory at Belgrade". Archived from the original on 13 April 2009.
- Peter H. Wilson (2011). The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy. Belknap Press. ISBN 9780674062313.
- "Medieval Sourcebook: Inquisition – Introduction". Archived from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
- Simon, Edith (1966). Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. Time-Life Books. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-0-662-27820-7.
- Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198201717.
- Hansen, Joseph. Witchcraft in Europe, 400-1700: A Documentary History. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.
- Mayer, Thomas (2013). The Roman Inquisition: A Papal Bureaucracy and Its Laws in the Age of Galileo. University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola. Fordham University Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0823212750.
- Frank D. McConnell. Storytelling and Mythmaking: Images from Film and Literature. Archived 21 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-19-502572-5; Quote from p. 78: "But Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, Ivan Groznyi, "Ivan the Magnificent" or "Ivan the Awesome", is precisely a man who has become a legend"
- Solovyov, S. (2001). History of Russia from the Earliest Times. Vol. 6. AST. pp. 562–604. ISBN 978-5-17-002142-0.
- Skrynnikov, R. (1981). Ivan the Terrible. Academic Intl Pr. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-87569-039-1.
- Konstam, Angus. Pirates: The Complete History from 1300 BC to the Present Day. Osprey Publishing, 2008. ISBN 9781846032400.
- Rediker, Marcus. Villains of All Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age. Beacon Press, 2004. ISBN 9780807050255.
- Leeson, Peter T. The Invisible Hook: The Hidden Economics of Pirates. Princeton University Press, 2009. ISBN 9780691137477.
- BBC Science & Nature, Leonardo da Vinci Archived 5 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine (Retrieved on 12 May 2007)
- BBC History, Michelangelo Archived 25 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine (Retrieved on 12 May 2007)
- Palmer, Robert Roswell (1962). A History of the Modern World. Knopf. p. 234. OCLC 1000384424.
- James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz, Early Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983.[page needed]
- "Treaty of Paris (1783)". 16 April 2021.
- Armitage, David. The Ideological Origins of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 9780521789783.
- Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola: Reform in the Church, 1495-1540. Fordham University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8232-1275-0.
- Ditchfield, Simon. "The Catholic Reformation." Renaissance Studies, vol. 15, no. 3, 2001, pp. 390-409. DOI:10.1111/1477-4658.00088.
- Machamer, Peter (1998). The Cambridge Companion to Galileo. Cambridge University Press. p. 393.
- Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 65.
- Hawking, Stephen (2001). The Universe in a Nutshell. Bantam Books. p. 66.
- White, Michael (1998). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Basic Books.
- Nutton, Vivian (2004). Ancient Medicine. Routledge. p. 204.
- Wear, Andrew (2000). Knowledge and Practice in English Medicine, 1550–1680. Cambridge University Press. pp. 278–280.
- Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. (2012). The Chemical Choir: A History of Alchemy. Continuum.
- Ring, Malvin E. (1992). Pierre Fauchard and the Founding of Modern Dentistry. Journal of the History of Dentistry.
- Riedel, Stefan (2005). Edward Jenner and the History of Smallpox and Vaccination. Proceedings (Baylor University Medical Center).
- Bowler, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: The History of an Idea. University of California Press.
- Bladon, Christine (2020). Seeing the Invisible: Microscopes and Microscopists from the 17th to the 19th Century. Oxford University Press.
- Anderson, Margaret J. (2009). Carl Linnaeus: Father of Classification. Enslow Publishers.
- Cutler, Alan (2003). The Seashell on the Mountaintop. Dutton. pp. 134–136.
- Heilbron, John L. (1979). Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics. University of California Press.
- Robins, Robert H. (1997). A Short History of Linguistics. Longman. pp. 160–163.
- Heilbroner, Robert (1999). The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers. Simon & Schuster.
- Israel, Jonathan I. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0198206088.
- Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0521546812.
- Gaukroger, Stephen. Descartes: An Intellectual Biography. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0198239949.
- Jacob, Margaret C. The Scientific Revolution: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010. ISBN 978-0312539481.
- "Kant, Immanuel: Metaphysics – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Archived from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
- Gardner, Sebastian. Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 978-0415119099.
- Barry, John M. Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul. Viking, 2012. ISBN 978-0670023059.
- Proust, Jacques. Diderot et l'Encyclopédie. A. Colin, 1962.
- Porter, Roy. The Enlightenment. Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 978-0333964500.
- Berlin, Isaiah. Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas. Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0691090269.
- Paul Oskar Kristeller, Humanism, pp. 113–114, in Charles B. Schmitt, Quentin Skinner (editors), The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy (1990).
- She was the author of Miroir de l'âme pécheresse (The Mirror of a Sinful Soul), published after her death, among other devotional poetry. See also "Marguerite de Navarre: Religious Reformist" in Jonathan A. Reid, King's sister—queen of dissent: Marguerite of Navarre (1492–1549) and her evangelical network [dead link ] (Studies in medieval and Reformation traditions, 1573–4188; v. 139). Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009. (2 v.: (xxii, 795 p.) ISBN 978-90-04-17760-4 (v. 1), ISBN 978-9004177611 (v. 2)
- Bengsston, Tommy (2004). "12: Infant and Child Mortality". Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262025515.
- Laqueur, Thomas (2015). The Work of the Dead: A Cultural History of Mortal Remains. Princeton University. ISBN 978-0691157788.
- Ward, Richard (2015). Introduction to A Global History of Execution and the Criminal Corpse (PDF). doi:10.1057/9781137577931 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISBN 978-1137577931. PMID 27559562. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
Works cited
- Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (2003). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-30787-2.
External links
- Internet Modern History Sourcebook, fordham.edu
- Discussion of the medieval/modern transition from the introduction to the pioneering Cambridge Modern History (1902–1912)
- Society for Renaissance Studies
- Early Modern Culture (archived 25 September 2011)
- Early Modern Resources
The early modern period is a historical period that is part of or depending on the historian immediately preceded the modern period with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity There is no exact date that marks the beginning or end of the period and its extent may vary depending on the area of history being studied In general the early modern period is considered to have lasted from around the start of the 16th century to the start of the 19th century about 1500 1800 In a European context it is defined as the period following the Middle Ages and preceding the advent of modernity but the dates of these boundaries are far from universally agreed In the context of global history the early modern period is often used even in contexts where there is no equivalent medieval period Various events and historical transitions have been proposed as the start of the early modern period including the fall of Constantinople in 1453 the start of the Renaissance the end of the Crusades the Reformation in Germany giving rise to Protestantism and the beginning of the Age of Discovery and with it the onset of the first wave of European colonization Its end is often marked by the French Revolution and sometimes also the American Revolution or Napoleon s rise to power with the advent of the second wave modern colonization of New Imperialism Historians in recent decades have argued that from a worldwide standpoint the most important feature of the early modern period was its spreading globalizing character New economies and institutions emerged becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the period The early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of mercantilism as an economic theory Other notable trends of the period include the development of experimental science increasingly rapid technological progress secularized civic politics accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design and the emergence of nation states DefinitionThe early modern period is a subdivision of the most recent of the three major periods of European history antiquity the Middle Ages and the modern period The term early modern was first proposed by medieval historian Lynn Thorndike in his 1926 work A Short History of Civilization as a broader alternative to the Renaissance It was first picked up within the field of economic history during the 1940s and 1950s and gradually spread to other historians in the following decades and became widely known among scholars during the 1990s OverviewMap of the world by Paolo Petrini 1700 At the onset of the early modern period trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization politically and economically Feudalism declined in Europe and Christendom saw the end of the Crusades and of religious unity in Western Europe under the Roman Catholic Church The old order was destabilized by the Protestant Reformation which caused a backlash that expanded the Inquisition and sparked the disastrous European wars of religion which included the especially bloody Thirty Years War and ended with the establishment of the modern international system in the Peace of Westphalia Along with the European colonization of the Americas this period also contained the Commercial Revolution and the Golden Age of Piracy The globalization of the period can be seen in the medieval North Italian city states and maritime republics particularly Genoa Venice and Milan Russia reached the Pacific coast in 1647 and consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century The Great Divergence took place as Western Europe greatly surpassed China in technology and per capita wealth As the Age of Revolution dawned beginning with revolts in America and France political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars and their impact on thought and thinking from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies The early period ended in a time of political and economic change as a result of mechanization in society the American Revolution and the first French Revolution other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna and the peace established by the Second Treaty of Paris which ended the Napoleonic Wars A Japanese depiction of a Portuguese trading carrack Advances in shipbuilding technology during the Late Middle Ages would pave the way for the global European presence characteristic of the early modern period In the Americas pre Columbian peoples had built a large and varied civilization including the Aztec Empire the Inca civilization the Maya civilization and its cities and the Muisca The European colonization of the Americas began during the early modern period as did the establishment of European trading hubs in Asia and Africa which contributed to the spread of Christianity around the world The rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe in particular the Columbian Exchange that linked the Old World and the New World greatly altered the human environment Notably the Atlantic slave trade and colonization of Native Americans began during this period The Ottoman Empire conquered Southeastern Europe and parts of West Asia and North Africa In the Islamic world after the fall of the Timurid Renaissance powers such as the Ottoman Suri Safavid and Mughal empires grew in strength three of which are known as gunpowder empires for the military technology that enabled them Particularly in the Indian subcontinent Mughal architecture culture and art reached their zenith while the empire itself is believed to have had the world s largest economy bigger than the entirety of Western Europe and worth 25 of global GDP By the mid 18th century India was a major proto industrializing region Various Chinese dynasties controlled the East Asian sphere In Japan the Edo period from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period In Korea the early modern period is considered to have lasted from the rise of the Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong By the 16th century Asian economies under the Ming dynasty and Mughal Bengal were stimulated by trade with the Portuguese the Spanish and the Dutch while Japan engaged in the Nanban trade after the arrival of the first European Portuguese during the Azuchi Momoyama period Meanwhile in Southeast Asia the Toungoo Empire along with Ayutthaya experienced a golden age and ruled a large extent of Mainland Southeast Asia with the Nguyen and Trinh lords de facto ruling the south and north of present day Vietnam respectively whereas the Mataram Sultanate was the dominant power in Maritime Southeast Asia The early modern period experienced an influx of European traders and missionaries into the region Asia and AfricaEast Asia In Early Modern times the major nations of East Asia attempted to pursue a course of isolationism from the outside world but this policy was not always enforced uniformly or successfully However by the end of the Early Modern Period China Korea and Japan were mostly closed and uninterested in Europeans even while trading relationships grew in port cities such as Guangzhou and Dejima Chinese dynasties Around the beginning of the ethnically Han Ming dynasty 1368 1644 China was leading the world in mathematics as well as science However Europe soon caught up to China s scientific and mathematical achievements and surpassed them Many scholars have speculated about the reason behind China s lag in advancement A historian named Colin Ronan claims that though there is no one specific answer there must be a connection between China s urgency for new discoveries being weaker than Europe s and China s inability to capitalize on its early advantages Ronan believes that China s Confucian bureaucracy and traditions led to China not having a scientific revolution which led China to have fewer scientists to break the existing orthodoxies like Galileo Galilei Despite inventing gunpowder in the 9th century it was in Europe that the classic handheld firearms matchlocks were invented with evidence of use around the 1480s China was using the matchlocks by 1540 after the Portuguese brought their matchlocks to Japan in the early 1500s China during the Ming Dynasty established a bureau to maintain its calendar The bureau was necessary because the calendars were linked to celestial phenomena and that needs regular maintenance because twelve lunar months have 344 or 355 days so occasional leap months have to be added in order to maintain 365 days per year Cishou Temple Pagoda built in 1576 the Chinese believed that building pagodas on certain sites according to geomantic principles brought about auspicious events merchant funding for such projects was needed by the late Ming period In the early Ming dynasty urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex Large urban centers such as Nanjing and Beijing also contributed to the growth of private industry In particular small scale industries grew up often specializing in paper silk cotton and porcelain goods For the most part however relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country Town markets mainly traded food with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil In the 16th century the Ming dynasty flourished over maritime trade with the Portuguese Spanish and Dutch Empires The trade brought in a massive amount of silver which China at the time needed desperately Prior to China s global trade its economy ran on paper money However in the 14th century China s paper money system suffered a crisis and by the mid 15th century crashed The silver imports helped fill the void left by the broken paper money system which helps explain why the value of silver in China was twice as high as the value of silver in Spain during the end of the 16th century China under the later Ming dynasty became isolated prohibiting the construction of ocean going sea vessels Despite isolationist policies the Ming economy still suffered from an inflation due to an overabundance of Spanish New World silver entering its economy through new European colonies such as Macau Ming China was further strained by victorious but costly wars to protect Korea from Japanese invasion The European trade depression of the 1620s also hurt the Chinese economy which sunk to the point where all of China s trading partners cut ties with them Philip IV restricted shipments of exports from Acapulco the Japanese cut off all trade with Macau and the Dutch severed connections between Goa and Macau Painting depicting the Qing Chinese celebrating a victory over the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan This work was a collaboration between Chinese and European painters The damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient Little Ice Age natural calamities crop failure and sudden epidemics The ensuing breakdown of authority and people s livelihoods allowed rebel leaders such as Li Zicheng to challenge Ming authority The Ming dynasty fell around 1644 to the ethnically Manchu Qing dynasty which would be the last dynasty of China The Qing ruled from 1644 to 1912 with a brief abortive restoration in 1917 During its reign the Qing dynasty adopted many of the outward features of Chinese culture in establishing its rule but did not necessarily assimilate instead adopting a more universalist style of governance The Manchus were formerly known as the Jurchens When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng s peasant rebels in 1644 the Chongzhen Emperor the last Ming emperor committed suicide The Manchus then allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China proper Schoppa the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical reality It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries Japanese shogunates The Sengoku period that began around 1467 and lasted around a century consisted of several continually warring states Following contact with the Portuguese on Tanegashima Isle in 1543 the Japanese adopted several of the technologies and cultural practices of their visitors whether in the military area the arquebus European style cuirasses European ships religion Christianity decorative art language integration to Japanese of a Western vocabulary and culinary the Portuguese introduced tempura and valuable refined sugar The Great Wave off Kanagawa c 1830 by Hokusai an example of art flourishing in the Edo Period Central government was largely reestablished by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the Azuchi Momoyama period Although a start date of 1573 is often given in more broad terms the period begins with Oda Nobunaga s entry into Kyoto in 1568 when he led his army to the imperial capital in order to install Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the 15th and ultimately final shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate and it lasts until the coming to power of Tokugawa Ieyasu after his victory over supporters of the Toyotomi clan at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 Tokugawa received the title of shōgun in 1603 establishing the Tokugawa shogunate The Edo period from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan The Tokugawa shogunate was a feudalist regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shōguns of the Tokugawa clan The period gets its name from the capital city Edo now called Tokyo The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle from 1603 until 1868 when it was abolished during the Meiji Restoration in the late Edo period often called the Late Tokugawa shogunate Society in the Japanese Tokugawa period Edo society unlike the shogunates before it was based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi The daimyōs feudal lords were at the top followed by the warrior caste of samurai with the farmers artisans and traders ranking below The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the Sakoku policy Literacy among the Japanese people rose in the two centuries of isolation In some parts of the country particularly smaller regions daimyōs and samurai were more or less identical since daimyōs might be trained as samurai and samurai might act as local lords Otherwise the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value As a result the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well to do peasants None however proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers Korean dynasty In 1392 General Yi Seong gye established the Joseon dynasty 1392 1910 with a largely bloodless coup Yi Seong gye moved the capital of Korea to the location of modern day Seoul The dynasty was heavily influenced by Confucianism which also played a large role to shaping Korea s strong cultural identity King Sejong the Great 1418 1450 one of the only two kings in Korea s history to earn the title of great in their posthumous titles reclaimed Korean territory to the north and created the Korean alphabet During the end of the 16th century Korea was invaded twice by Japan first in 1592 and again in 1597 Japan failed both times due to Admiral Yi Sun sin Korea s revered naval genius who led the Korean Navy using advanced metal clad ships called turtle ships Because the ships were armed with cannons Admiral Yi s navy was able to demolish the Japanese invading fleets destroying hundreds of ships in Japan s second invasion During the 17th century Korea was invaded again this time by Manchurians who would later take over China as the Qing Dynasty In 1637 King Injo was forced to surrender to the Qing forces and was ordered to send princesses as concubines to the Qing Prince Dorgon South Asia Indian empires Map of the Gunpowder Empires with the Mughal Empire in orangeThe Mughal ambassador Khan Alam in 1618 negotiating with Shah Abbas the Great of Iran The rise of the Mughal Empire is usually dated from 1526 around the end of the Middle Ages It was an Islamic Persianate imperial power that ruled most of the area as Hindustan by the late 17th and the early 18th centuries The empire dominated South Asia becoming the largest global economy and manufacturing power with a nominal GDP valued at a quarter of the global economy superior than the combined GDP of Europe The empire prior to the death of the last prominent emperor Aurangzeb was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting its different provinces All the significant monuments of the Mughals their most visible legacy date to this period which was characterized by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent with brilliant literary artistic and architectural results The Maratha Confederacy founded in the southwest of present day India surpassed the Mughals as the dominant power in India from 1740 and rapidly expanded until the Third Battle of Panipat halted their expansion in 1761 British and Dutch colonization The development of New Imperialism saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers The commercial colonization of India commenced in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company citation not found in 1765 when the company was granted the diwani or the right to collect revenue in Bengal and Bihar or in 1772 when the company established a capital in Calcutta appointed its first Governor General Warren Hastings and became directly involved in governance Robert Clive and Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey 1757 by Francis Hayman The Maratha Confederacy following the Anglo Maratha wars eventually lost to the British East India Company in 1818 with the Third Anglo Maratha War Rule by the Company lasted until 1858 when after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and following the Government of India Act 1858 the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj In 1819 Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in its rivalry with the Dutch However the rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia From the 1850s onwards the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear Southeast Asia At the start of the modern era the Spice Route between India and China crossed Majapahit an archipelagic empire based on the island of Java It was the last of the major Hindu empires of Maritime Southeast Asia and is considered one of the greatest states in Indonesian history Its influence extended to Sumatra the Malay Peninsula Borneo and eastern Indonesia though the effectiveness of this influence remains debated Majapahit struggled to control the rising Sultanate of Malacca which dominated Muslim Malay settlements in Phuket Satun Pattani and Sumatra The Portuguese invaded Malacca s capital in 1511 and by 1528 the Sultanate of Johor was established by a Malaccan prince to succeed Malacca West Asia and North Africa Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire 1481 1683 During the early modern era the Ottoman Empire enjoyed an expansion and consolidation of power leading to a Pax Ottomana This was perhaps the golden age of the empire The Ottomans expanded southwest into North Africa while battling with the re emergent Persian Shi a Safavid Empire to the east North Africa In the Ottoman sphere the Turks seized Egypt in 1517 and established the regencies of Algeria Tunisia and Tripolitania between 1519 and 1551 Morocco remaining an independent Arabized Berber state under the Sharifan dynasty Safavid Iran The Safavid Empire was a great Shia Persianate empire after the Islamic conquest of Persia and the establishment of Islam marking an important point in the history of Islam in the east The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501 From their base in Ardabil the Safavids established control over all of Persia and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region thus becoming the first native dynasty since the Sassanids to establish a unified Iranian state Problematic for the Safavids was the powerful Ottoman Empire The Ottomans a Sunni dynasty fought several campaigns against the Safavids What fueled the growth of Safavid economy was its position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north The Silk Road which led from Europe to East Asia revived in the 16th century Leaders also supported direct sea trade with Europe particularly England and The Netherlands which sought Persian carpet silk and textiles Other exports were horses goat hair pearls and an inedible bitter almond hadam talka used as a spice in India The main imports were spice textiles woolens from Europe cotton from Gujarat metals coffee and sugar Despite their demise in 1722 the Safavids left their mark by establishing and spreading Shi a Islam in major parts of the Caucasus and West Asia Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns In the 16th to early 18th centuries Central Asia was under the rule of Uzbeks and the far eastern portions were ruled by the local Pashtuns Between the 15th and 16th centuries various nomadic tribes arrived from the steppes including the Kipchaks Naimans Kangly Khongirad and Manghuds These groups were led by Muhammad Shaybani who was the Khan of the Uzbeks The lineage of the Afghan Pashtuns stretches back to the Hotaki dynasty Following Muslim Arab and Turkic conquests Pashtun ghazis warriors for the faith invaded and conquered much of northern India during the Lodhi dynasty and Suri dynasty Pashtun forces also invaded Persia and the opposing forces were defeated in the Battle of Gulnabad The Pashtuns later formed the Durrani Empire Sub Saharan Africa The Songhai Empire took control of the trans Saharan trade at the beginning of the modern era It seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473 building the regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants The empire eventually made Islam the official religion built mosques and brought Muslim scholars to Gao EuropeMany major events caused Europe to change around the start of the 16th century starting with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 the fall of Muslim Spain and the discovery of the Americas in 1492 and Martin Luther s Protestant Reformation in 1517 In England the modern period is often dated to the start of the Tudor period with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century through the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century The early modern period is taken to end with the French Revolution the Napoleonic Wars and the Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire at the Congress of Vienna At the end of the early modern period the British and Russian empires had emerged as world powers from the multipolar contest of colonial empires while the three great Asian empires of the early modern period Ottoman Turkey Mughal India and Qing China all entered a period of stagnation or decline Gunpowder and firearms When gunpowder was introduced to Europe it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare Though it was invented in China gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use European countries took advantage of this and were the first to create the classic firearms The advances made in gunpowder and firearms was directly tied to the decline in the use of plate armor because of the inability of the armor to protect one from bullets The musket was able to penetrate all forms of armor available at the time making armor obsolete and as a consequence the heavy musket as well Although there is relatively little to no difference in design between arquebus and musket except in size and strength it was the term musket which remained in use up into the 1800s European kingdoms and movements In the early modern period the Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe under a Holy Roman Emperor the first of which was Otto I The last was Francis II who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars Despite its name for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders The Renaissance was a cultural movement that began in the 14th century beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe this is a general use of the term As a cultural movement it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on classical sources the development of linear perspective in painting and gradual but widespread educational reform Notable individuals Gutenberg reviewing a press proof a colored engraving created probably in the 19th century Johannes Gutenberg is credited as the first European to use movable type printing around 1439 and as the global inventor of the mechanical printing press Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology 1543 which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe His book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres began modern astronomy and sparked the Scientific Revolution Another notable individual was Machiavelli an Italian political philosopher considered a founder of modern political science Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise The Prince a work of realist political theory The Swiss Paracelsus 1493 1541 is associated with a medical revolution while the Anglo Irish Robert Boyle was one of the founders of modern chemistry In visual arts notable representatives included the three giants of the High Renaissance namely Leonardo da Vinci Michelangelo and Raphael Albrecht Durer often considered the greatest artist of Northern Renaissance Titian from the Venetian school Peter Paul Rubens of the Flemish Baroque traditions Famous composers included Guillaume Du Fay Heinrich Isaac Josquin des Prez Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Claudio Monteverdi Jean Baptiste Lully Among the notable royalty of the time was Charles the Bold 1433 1477 the last Valois Duke of Burgundy known as Charles the Bold or Rash to his enemies His early death was a pivotal moment in European history Charles has often been regarded as the last representative of the feudal spirit although in administrative affairs he introduced remarkable modernizing innovations Upon his death Charles left an unmarried nineteen year old daughter Mary of Burgundy as his heir Her marriage would have enormous implications for the political balance of Europe Frederick III Holy Roman Emperor secured the match for his son the future Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor with the aid of Mary s stepmother Margaret In 1477 the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France In the same year Mary married Maximilian Archduke of Austria A conflict between the Burgundian side Maximilian brought with himself almost no resources from the Empire and France ensued culminating in the Treaty of Senlis 1493 which gave the majority of Burgundian inheritance to the Habsburg Mary already died in 1482 The rise of the Habsburg dynasty was a prime factor in the spreading of the Renaissance In Central Europe King Matthias Corvinus 1443 1490 a notable nation builder conqueror Hungary in his time was the most powerful in Central Europe and patron was the first who introduced the Renaissance outside of Italy In military area he introduced the Black Army one of the first standing armies in Europe and a remarkably modern force Some noblemen from the generation that lived during this period have been attributed the moniker the last knight with the most notable being the above mentioned Maximilian I 1459 1519 Chevalier de Bayard 1476 1524 Franz von Sickingen 1481 1523 and Gotz von Berlichingen 1480 1562 Maximilian although Claude Michaud opines that he could claim last knight status by virtue of being the last medieval epic poet was actually a chief modernizing force of the time whose reform initiatives led to Europe wide revolutions in the areas of warfare and communications among others who broke the back of the knight class causing many to become robber barons and had personal conflicts with the three other men on the matter of the knight s status Christians and Christendom source source Johann Sebastian Bach Mass in B minor Agnus Dei From 1724 Christianity was challenged at the beginning of the modern period with the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and later by various movements to reform the church including Lutheran Zwinglian and Calvinist followed by the Counter Reformation End of the Crusades and Unity The Hussite Crusades 1419 1434 involved military actions against the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia concluding with the Battle of Grotniki These wars were notable for being among the first European conflicts where hand held gunpowder weapons like muskets played a decisive role The Taborite faction of Hussite warriors primarily infantry decisively defeated larger armies with heavily armored knights contributing to the infantry revolution However the Hussite Crusades were ultimately inconclusive Battle of Vienna 12 September 1683 The final crusade the Crusade of 1456 was organized to counter the advancing Ottoman Empire and lift the Siege of Belgrade 1456 led by John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano The siege culminated in a counterattack that forced Sultan Mehmet II to retreat with the victory being credited with deciding the fate of Christendom The noon bell ordered by Pope Callixtus III commemorates this victory across the Christian world to this day Nearly a century later the Peace of Augsburg 1555 ended the concept of a united Christian church The principle of cuius regio eius religio allowed rulers to determine their state s religion This framework was solidified by the Treaty of Westphalia 1648 which ended the European Wars of Religion and the notion of a singular Christian hegemony The treaty also marked the birth of the modern concept of national sovereignty Inquisitions and Reformations The Inquisition in the modern era refers to several institutions within the Catholic Church tasked with prosecuting heretics and others who violated canon law The first significant manifestation was the Spanish Inquisition 1478 1834 The Inquisition prosecuted crimes such as sorcery blasphemy Judaizing witchcraft and censorship of printed literature Its jurisdiction was limited to baptized Catholics while non Christians were typically tried by secular courts Martin Luther hammers his 95 theses to the door by Ferdinand Pauwels The Reformation and rise of modernity in the early 16th century brought changes to Christendom The Augustinian friar Martin Luther in Germany challenged the Church with his Ninety five Theses marking the start of the Reformation Luther s movement supported by the Electorate of Saxony developed at the University of Wittenberg where he became a professor Luther s 95 Theses criticized practices like the sale of indulgences and sparked debates leading to the rise of rival Protestant denominations such as Lutheranism and the Reformed tradition In England the movement became known as the English Reformation resulting in the formation of Anglicanism The Diet of Worms 1521 declared Luther a heretic but Emperor Charles V was preoccupied with external threats and allowed German princes to decide whether to enforce the Edict of Worms The religious conflict escalated leading to the formation of the Schmalkaldic League to defend Protestant interests This culminated in the Peace of Augsburg 1555 which established the principle of cuius regio eius religio allowing rulers to determine the religion of their territories Two main Inquisitions remained active in the modern era The Portuguese Inquisition 1536 1821 similar to the Spanish Inquisition The Roman Inquisition 1542 circa 1860 covering most of the Italian peninsula and certain other areas The Counter Reformation began in 1545 with the Council of Trent in response to the Protestant Reformation Its goal was to reform internal Church practices while reaffirming the Church s authority as the true Church of Christ Tsardom of Russia In development of the Third Rome ideas the Grand Duke Ivan IV the Awesome or the Terrible was officially crowned the first Tsar Caesar of Russia in 1547 The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws Sudebnik of 1550 established the first Russian feudal representative body Zemsky Sobor and introduced local self management into the rural regions During his long reign Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates parts of disintegrated Golden Horde Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River and Sibirean Khanate in South Western Siberia Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a multiethnic multiconfessional and transcontinental state Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century which was the age of Cossacks Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World The native land of the Cossacks is defined by a line of Russian Ruthenian town fortresses located on the border with the steppe and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl This area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts Mercantile capitalism Trade and the new economy In the Old World the most desired trading goods were gold silver and spices Western Europeans used the compass new sailing ship technologies new maps and advances in astronomy to seek a viable trade route to Asia for valuable spices that Mediterranean powers could not contest Piracy s Golden Age The Golden Age of Piracy is a designation given to one or more outbursts of piracy in the early modern period spanning from the mid 17th century to the mid 18th century The buccaneering period covers approximately the late 17th century This period was characterized by Anglo French seamen based in Jamaica and Tortuga attacking Spanish colonies and shipping in the Caribbean and eastern Pacific The Pirate Round was a route followed by certain Anglo American pirates in the early 18th century involving voyages from Bermuda and the Americas to attack Muslim and East India Company ships in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea The post War of the Spanish Succession period saw many unemployed sailors and privateers turning to piracy in the Caribbean the American eastern seaboard West Africa and the Indian Ocean European states and politics Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 The 15th to 18th century period is marked by the first European colonies the rise of strong centralized governments and the beginnings of recognizable European nation states that are the direct antecedents of today s states Although the Renaissance included revolutions in many intellectual pursuits as well as social and political upheaval it is perhaps best known for European artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo who inspired the term Renaissance man The Peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern diplomatic congress Until 1806 the regulations became part of the constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire The Treaty of the Pyrenees signed in 1659 ended the war between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord French power Men who featured prominently in the political and military life of France during this period include Mazarin Jean Baptiste Colbert Turenne Vauban French culture likewise flourished during this era producing a number of figures of great renown including Moliere Racine Boileau La Fontaine Lully Le Brun Rigaud Louis Le Vau Jules Hardouin Mansart Claude Perrault and Le Notre Early English revolutions Before the Age of Revolution the English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists The first and second civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament while the third war saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland Constitutionally the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament s consent The English Restoration or simply put as the Restoration began in 1660 when the English Scottish and Irish monarchies were all restored under Charles II after the Commonwealth of England that followed the English Civil War The Glorious Revolution of 1688 establishes modern parliamentary democracy in England International balance of power The Peace of Utrecht established after a series of individual peace treaties signed in the Dutch city of Utrecht concluded between various European states helped end the War of the Spanish Succession The representatives who met were Louis XIV of France and Philip V of Spain on the one hand and representatives of Queen Anne of Great Britain the Duke of Savoy and the United Provinces on the other The treaty enregistered the defeat of French ambitions expressed in the wars of Louis XIV and preserved the European system based on the balance of power The Treaty of Utrecht marked the change from Dutch to British naval supremacy AmericasWorld Colonization of 1492 Early Modern World 1550 1660 1754 Age of Enlightenment 1822 Industrial revolution 1885 European Hegemony 1914 World War I era 1938 World War II era 1959 Cold War era and 1974 2008 Recent history The term colonialism is normally used with reference to discontiguous overseas empires rather than contiguous land based empires European or otherwise European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity to Sub Saharan Africa the Americas Australia and the Philippines Exploration and conquest of the Americas Colonial Latin America Initially Portuguese settlements Brazil in the coastal northeast were of lesser importance in the larger Portuguese overseas empire where lucrative commerce and small settlements devoted to trade were established in coastal Africa India and China With sparse indigenous populations that could not be coerced to work and no known deposits of precious metals Portugal sought a high value low bulk export product and found it in sugarcane Black African slave labour from Portugal s West African possessions was imported to do the grueling agricultural work As the wealth of the Ibero America increased some Western European powers Dutch French British Danish sought to duplicate the model in areas that the Iberians had not settled in numbers They seized some Caribbean islands from the Spanish and transferred the model of sugar production on plantations with slave labour and settled in northern areas of North America in what are now the Eastern Seaboard of the United States and Canada Colonial North America John Trumbull s Declaration of Independence showing the Committee of Five in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia North America outside the zone of Spanish settlement was a contested area in the 17th century Spain had founded small settlements in Florida and Georgia but nowhere near the size of those in New Spain or the Caribbean islands France The Netherlands and Great Britain held colonies in North America and the West Indies from the 17th century 100 years after the Spanish and Portuguese established permanent colonies The British colonies in North America were founded between 1607 Virginia and 1733 Georgia The Dutch explored the east coast of North America and began founding settlements in what they called New Netherland now New York State France colonized what is now Eastern Canada founding Quebec City in 1608 France s loss in the Seven Years War resulted in the transfer of New France to Great Britain The Thirteen Colonies in lower British North America rebelled against British rule through 1765 1783 due to various factors such as belief in natural rights the enforcement of new taxes levied by a Parliament which they could not vote for representatives in and opposition to monarchy The British colonies in Canada remained loyal to the crown and a provisional government formed by the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed their independence on 4 July 1776 and subsequently became the original 13 United States of America With the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutionary War Britain recognised the former Thirteen Colonies independence Atlantic WorldWaldseemuller map with joint sheets 1507 A key development in early modern history is the creation of the Atlantic World as a category The term generally encompasses Western Europe West Africa and the Americas It seeks to illustrate both local and regional developments as well as the connections between these geographical regions through trade migration and cultural exchange Religion science philosophy and educationProtestant Reformation The early modern period was initiated by the Reformation and the collapse of the unity of the medieval Western Church The theology of Calvinism in particular has been argued as instrumental to the rise of capitalism Max Weber has written a highly influential book on this called The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Counter Reformation and Jesuits The Counter Reformation was a period of Catholic revival in response to the Reformation during the mid 16th to mid 17th centuries The Counter Reformation was a comprehensive effort involving ecclesiastical reforms as well as political and spiritual movements Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ including the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality It also involved political activities that included the Roman Inquisition New religious orders were a fundamental part of this trend Orders such as the Capuchins Ursulines Theatines Discalced Carmelites the Barnabites and especially the Jesuits strengthened rural parishes improved popular piety helped to curb corruption within the church and set examples that would be a strong impetus for Catholic renewal Scientific Revolution Model for the Three Superior Planets and Venus from Georg von Peuerbach Theoricae novae planetarum The Great Divergence in scientific discovery technological innovation and economic development began in the early modern period as the pace of change in Western countries increased significantly compared to the rest of the world During the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries empiricism and modern science replaced older methods of studying nature which had relied on ancient texts by writers like Aristotle By the time of the Revolution these methods resulted in an accumulation of knowledge that overturned ideas inherited from Ancient Greece and Islamic scholars Major changes during the Scientific Revolution and the 18th century included The ancient geocentric model of the solar system the other planets circle the Earth was replaced by the heliocentrism the planets circle the Sun This shift known as the Copernican Revolution is marked by the 1543 publication of Nicolaus Copernicus s De revolutionibus orbium coelestium Copernicus work influenced by earlier scholars such as Mu ayyad al Din al Urdi sparked a significant paradigm shift The Catholic Church resisted this theory and the Inquisition famously imprisoned Galileo Galilei for promoting it Using precise astronomical observations by Tycho Brahe Johannes Kepler developed Kepler s laws of planetary motion demonstrating that planets move in ellipses rather than perfect circles The idea that the stars were fixed on celestial spheres was replaced by the idea that stars are distant suns Astrology and astronomy began to separate into different disciplines with only astronomy using scientific methods Telescope technology improved tremendously as did the study of optics Aristotle s laws of motion were replaced by Newton s laws of motion and Newton s law of universal gravitation The 1687 publication of Isaac Newton s Principia Mathematica is often used to mark the end of the Scientific Revolution as it established the fundamental laws of physics that would dominate scientific thinking for centuries Advances in anatomy were marked by the publication of De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem 1543 by Andreas Vesalius which revolutionized the understanding of human anatomy and corrected errors in the works of Galen In 1628 William Harvey s De Motu Cordis advanced knowledge of the circulatory system Both the 8th century Islamic experimenter Jabir ibn Hayyan and the 17th century scientist Robert Boyle have been described as founders of modern chemistry Both worked as alchemists before the fields were clearly separated Boyle argued for corpuscularianism in the 1661 book The Sceptical Chymist and discovered Boyle s law of gases The chemical revolution followed with the discovery of the conservation of mass which led to the rejection of phlogiston theory and the identification of chemical elements Modern scientific dentistry was founded by Pierre Fauchard who is credited with pioneering dental techniques in his 1728 work Le Chirurgien Dentiste The smallpox vaccine was invented in the 1770s and popularized by Edward Jenner in the 1790s though it was unclear at the time how it worked The ancient theory of spontaneous generation remained dominant throughout the early modern period but the history of evolutionary thought includes some who questioned the strictest form of this dogma The idea of partial common descent was famously promoted by Georges Louis Leclerc Comte de Buffon Evolution was not fully articulated and accepted until the 19th century The invention of the microscope led to the development of microbiology with early observations of microorganisms by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 1670s Carl Linnaeus published the first modern taxonomy in Systema Naturae 1735 introducing the classification of organisms into hierarchical categories and replacing Aristotle s ideas Early modern geology was established with the work of Nicolas Steno who proposed the law of superposition in 1669 and the systematic study of fossils and rock types began to question the biblical age of the Earth Early developments in the history of electromagnetism included research into the relationship between electricity and magnetism the development of the electrostatic generator and the discovery of Coulomb s law in 1784 which described the force between electric charges In the social sciences Historical linguistics began in the late 18th century with William Jones identifying the common origin of what are now called Indo European languages The fields of anthropology and paleoanthropology emerged in the 18th century but much of early modern anthropology is now considered scientific racism Adam Smith s work such as his seminal book The Wealth of Nations has been interpreted as the foundation of classical economics Technology Inventions of the early modern period included the floating dock lifting tower newspaper grenade musket lightning rod bifocals and Franklin stove Early attempts at building a practical electrical telegraph were hindered because static electricity was the only source available Enlightenment and reason If there is something you know communicate it If there is something you don t know search for it An engraving from the 1772 edition of the Encyclopedie Truth center is surrounded by light and unveiled by the figures to the right Philosophy and Reason The Age of Enlightenment is also called the Age of Reason because it marked a departure from the medieval tradition of scholasticism which was rooted in Christian dogma and from Renaissance philosophy s occultist approaches Instead reason became the central source of knowledge initiating the era of modern philosophy especially in Western philosophy This period in Europe was characterized by system builders philosophers who established unified theories of epistemology metaphysics logic ethics and sometimes even politics and the physical sciences Early 17th century philosophy is often referred to as the Age of Rationalism succeeding Renaissance philosophy and preceding the Enlightenment Some consider it the earliest part of the Enlightenment stretching over two centuries This era includes the works of Isaac Newton 1643 1727 such as Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica 1687 and the development of Descartes famous proposition Cogito ergo sum 1637 The first major advancements in modern science included Newton s theory of gravity which along with the contributions of John Locke Pierre Bayle Baruch Spinoza and others fueled the Enlightenment The 18th century saw the rise of secularization in Europe notably following the French Revolution Immanuel Kant classified his predecessors into two philosophical schools Rationalism and Empiricism The former was represented by figures such as Rene Descartes Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz Roger Williams established the colony of Providence Plantations in New England on the principle of separation of church and state after being exiled by the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony French salon culture played a key role in spreading Enlightenment ideas culminating in the influential Encyclopedie 1751 72 edited by Denis Diderot with contributions from thinkers such as Voltaire and Montesquieu The Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns stirred debate within the French Academy elevating contemporary knowledge over classical Greek and Roman wisdom Enlightenment thought also significantly influenced German philosophy fostered by Frederick the Great with Immanuel Kant emerging as a leading figure These developments also had profound impacts on the Scottish Enlightenment Russian Enlightenment Enlightenment in Spain and Enlightenment in Poland The Enlightenment flourished until around 1790 1800 after which the emphasis on reason gave way to Romanticism and the growing influence of Counter Enlightenment movements Humanism With the adoption of large scale printing after 1500 Italian Renaissance Humanism spread northward to France Germany Holland and England where it became associated with the Reformation Developing during the Enlightenment era Renaissance humanism as an intellectual movement spread across Europe The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write typically in the form of a letter The term umanista comes from the latter part of the 15th century The people were associated with the studia humanitatis a novel curriculum that was competing with the quadrivium and scholastic logic In France pre eminent Humanist Guillaume Bude 1467 1540 applied the philological methods of Italian Humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history composing a detailed commentary on Justinian s Code Although a royal absolutist and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti Bude was active in civic life serving as a diplomat for Francis I and helping to found the College des Lecteurs Royaux later the College de France Meanwhile Marguerite de Navarre the sister of Francis I herself a poet novelist and religious mystic gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers including Clement Marot Pierre de Ronsard and Francois Rabelais Death in the early modern periodMortality rates During the early modern period thorough and accurate global data on mortality rates is limited for a number of reasons including disparities in medical practices and views on the dead However there still remains data from European countries that still holds valuable information on the mortality rates of infants during this era In his book Life Under Pressure Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia 1700 1900 Tommy Bengtsson provides adequate information pertaining to the data of infant mortality rates in European countries as well as provide necessary contextual influences on these mortality rates European infant mortality rates Infant mortality was a global concern during the early modern period as many newborns would not survive into childhood Bengsston provides comparative data on infant mortality averages in a variety of European towns cities regions and countries starting from the mid 1600s to the 1800s These statistics are measured for infant deaths within the first month of every 1 000 births in a given area For instance the average infant mortality rate in what is now Germany was 108 infant deaths for every 1 000 births in Bavaria there were 140 190 infant deaths reported for every 1 000 births In France Beauvaisis reported 140 160 infants dying per every 1 000 babies born In what is now Italy Venice averaged 134 infant deaths per 1 000 births In Geneva 80 110 infants died per every 1 000 babies born In Sweden 70 95 infants died per 1 000 births in Linkoping 48 infants died per 1 000 births in Sundsvall and 41 infants died per 1 000 births in Vastanfors Causes of infant mortality Bengsston writes that climate conditions were the most important factor in determining infant mortality rates For the period from birth to the fifth birthday climate is clearly the most important determinant of death Winters proved to be harsh on families and their newborns especially if the other seasons of the year were warmer This seasonal drop in temperature was a lot for an infant s body to adapt to For instance Italy is home to a very warm climate in the summer and the temperature drops immensely in the winter This lends context to Bengsston writing that the Italian winter peak was the cruelest during the first 10 days of life a newborn was four times more likely to die than in the summer According to Bengsston this trend existed amongst cities in different parts of Italy and in various parts of Europe even though cities operated under different economic and agricultural conditions This leads Bengsston to his conclusion on what may have caused mortality rates in infants to spike during winter The strong protective effect of summer for neonatal deaths leads us to suppose that in many cases these might be due to the insufficient heating systems of the houses or to the exposure of the newborn to cold during the baptism ceremony This last hypothesis could explain why the effect was so strong in Italy Capital punishment During the early modern period many societies views on death changed greatly With the implementation of new torture techniques and increased public executions people began to give more value to their life and their body after death Along with the views on death methods of execution also changed New devices to torture and execute criminals were invented The number of criminals executed by gibbeting increased as did the total rate of executions during the early modern period See alsoCuisine in the early modern world Early modern warfare Periodization Price revolution Proto globalizationReferencesChristopher Alan Bayly The birth of the modern world 1780 1914 global connections and comparisons 2004 P 123 de Vries Jan 14 September 2009 The limits of globalization in the early modern world The Economic History Review 63 3 710 733 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 186 2862 doi 10 1111 j 1468 0289 2009 00497 x JSTOR 40929823 S2CID 219969360 SSRN 1635517 de Vries Jan 14 September 2009 The limits of globalization in the early modern world The Economic History Review 63 3 710 733 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 186 2862 doi 10 1111 j 1468 0289 2009 00497 x JSTOR 40929823 S2CID 219969360 SSRN 1635517 Wiesner Hanks Merry E 2021 What is Early Modern History Cambridge Polity ISBN 978 1 509 54057 0 Maddison Angus 2001 The World Economy Volume 1 A Millennial Perspective OECD Publishing pp 51 52 Crawley C W 1965 The new Cambridge modern history Volume 9 War and peace in an age of upheaval 1793 1830 Cambridge Cambridge University Press page needed Goldman E O amp Eliason L C 2003 The diffusion of military technology and ideas Stanford Calif Stanford University Press page needed Boot M 2006 War made new Technology warfare and the course of history 1500 to today New York Gotham Books page needed Bloy Marjie 30 April 2002 The Congress of Vienna 1 November 1814 8 June 1815 The Victorian Web Archived from the original on 4 October 2018 Retrieved 9 January 2009 Hazen Charles Downer 1910 Europe since 1815 American historical series H Holt and Company page needed Taylor Alan 2001 American Colonies New York Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 200210 0 Ottoman Empire Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Archived from the original on 26 April 2008 Retrieved 11 February 2013 Maddison Angus 2003 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics Historical Statistics OECD Publishing ISBN 9264104143 pp 259 261 Roy Tirthankar 2010 The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India In Lex Heerma van Voss Els Hiemstra Kuperus Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk eds The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers 1650 2000 Ashgate Publishing p 255 ISBN 978 0 7546 6428 4 Archived from the original on 10 December 2019 Retrieved 20 June 2019 Lieberman Victor B 2003 Strange Parallels Southeast Asia in Global Context c 800 1830 volume 1 Integration on the Mainland Cambridge University Press pp 150 154 ISBN 978 0 521 80496 7 Wyatt David K 2003 Thailand A Short History 2nd ed Chiang Mai Silkworm Books pp 109 110 ISBN 974957544X Chapuis Oscar A History of Vietnam From Hong Bang to Tự Đức Greenwood Publishing Group 1995 p 119 Archived 11 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine Needham Joseph 1956 Mathematics and Science in China and the West Science amp Society 20 4 320 343 JSTOR 40400462 ProQuest 1296937594 Bala A 2006 The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science Springer ISBN 978 0 230 60121 5 page needed Andrade Tonio 2016 The Gunpowder Age China Military Innovation and the Rise of the West in World History Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4008 7444 6 page needed Elman Benjamin A 2005 On Their Own Terms Harvard University Press pp 65 66 ISBN 0 674 01685 8 Flynn Dennis O Giraldez Arturo 1995 Arbitrage China and World Trade in the Early Modern Period Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 38 4 429 448 doi 10 1163 1568520952600308 JSTOR 3632434 Frank Andre Gunder 1998 ReOrient Global Economy in the Asian Age Berkeley University of California Press hdl 2027 heb 31038 0001 001 ISBN 978 0520214743 The Ming Voyages Asia for Educators Columbia University afe easia columbia edu Archived from the original on 6 March 2010 Retrieved 21 September 2018 Chapter 8 The New World mygeologypage ucdavis edu Archived from the original on 13 April 2019 Retrieved 21 September 2018 Barraclough Geoffrey 2003 HarperCollins Atlas of World History HarperCollins pp 168 169 ISBN 978 0 681 50288 8 OCLC 56350180 Wakeman Frederic E 1986 China and the Seventeenth Century Crisis Late Imperial China 7 1 1 26 doi 10 1353 late 1986 0006 S2CID 143899868 Crossley Pamela Kyle 2000 Conquest and the Blessing of the Past A Translucent Mirror History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology University of California Press pp 26 36 ISBN 978 0 520 92884 8 Archived from the original on 12 August 2020 Retrieved 28 July 2020 R Keith Schoppa 2000 The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History Columbia University Press p 15 ISBN 978 0 231 50037 1 Archived from the original on 1 August 2020 Retrieved 15 October 2019 Goldstein Darra Merkle Kathrin Mennell Stephen 2006 Culinary Cultures of Europe Identity Diversity and Dialogue Strasbourg Council of Europe p 350 ISBN 978 9 28715 744 7 Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan First edition 1983 section Azuchi Momoyama History 1568 1600 by George Elison in the entry for history of Japan page needed Henshall Kenneth 2014 Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945 Lanham Scarecrow Press p 91 ISBN 978 0 81087 872 3 Barraclough Geoffrey 2003 HarperCollins atlas of world history Borders Press in association with HarperCollins p 175 ISBN 978 0 681 50288 8 OCLC 56350180 Sansom George Bailey 1998 Japan A Short Cultural History Stanford Stanford University Press p 364 ISBN 978 0 80470 954 5 Lee Lawrence 21 March 2014 Honoring the Joseon Dynasty The Wall Street Journal Asia p 8 ProQuest 1508838378 Tae gyu Kim 15 April 2012 Joseon Korea s Confucian kingdom The Korea Times ProQuest 1990220190 Tae gyu Kim 29 May 2012 Joseon Korea s Confucian kingdom The Korea Times ProQuest 1990192832 Lee Iksop Ramsey S Robert 2001 The Korean Language Albany State University of New York Press p 13 ISBN 978 0 79149 130 0 Wakeman Frederic E 1985 The Great Enterprise The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth century China University of California Press ISBN 978 0520048041 Archived from the original on 29 April 2016 Retrieved 27 July 2018 L Canfield Robert Jonathan Haas 2002 Turko Persia in Historical Perspective Cambridge University Press p 20 ISBN 978 0 521 52291 5 Manas History and Politics Mughals Archived from the original on 21 June 2018 Retrieved 8 July 2009 Parthasarathi Prasannan 2011 Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not Global Economic Divergence 1600 1850 Cambridge University Press pp 39 45 ISBN 978 1 139 49889 0 Archived from the original on 21 November 2019 Retrieved 15 October 2019 Lawrence E Harrison Peter L Berger 2006 Developing cultures case studies Routledge p 158 ISBN 978 0415952798 Archived from the original on 12 June 2020 Retrieved 26 May 2020 Mughal Empire 1500s 1600s bbc co uk London BBC Section 5 Aurangzeb Archived from the original on 10 November 2010 Retrieved 18 October 2010 Wadley Susan S 2015 South Asia in the World An Introduction London Routledge p 34 ISBN 978 1 31745 959 0 Bose amp Jalal 2003 p 76 Brown Judith Margaret 1994 Modern India the origins of an Asian democracy Oxford University Press p 46 ISBN 978 0 19 873112 2 Archived from the original on 15 August 2020 Retrieved 28 January 2021 Peers Douglas M 2006 India under colonial rule 1700 1885 Pearson Education p 30 ISBN 978 0 582 31738 3 Archived from the original on 15 August 2020 Retrieved 28 January 2021 Metcalf Barbara Daly Metcalf Thomas R 2006 A concise history of modern India Cambridge University Press p 56 ISBN 978 0 521 86362 9 Archived from the original on 25 February 2021 Retrieved 28 January 2021 Official India World Digital Library 1890 1923 Archived from the original on 19 December 2019 Retrieved 30 May 2013 M C Ricklefs A History of Modern Indonesia Since c 1300 2nd ed Stanford Stanford University Press 1991 page 19 Pigeaud Theodore G Th 1963 Alphabetical Index of Subjects Treated in Volumes II V Java in the 14th Century Springer Netherlands pp 29 46 doi 10 1007 978 94 011 8778 7 3 ISBN 978 94 011 8778 7 Resink Gertrudes Johan 1968 Indonesia s History Between the Myths Essays in Legal History and Historical Theory Van Hoeve p 21 ISBN 978 90 200 7468 0 Reid Anthony 1993 Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450 1680 Volume Two Expansion and Crisis Yale University Press The Holy Land 1517 1713 Brill 2012 p 4 ISBN 978 90 04 23624 0 From Selim s conquest until the early eighteenth century which marked the beginning of British and French domination of the Mediterranean Sea routes the region witnessed what Rhoads Murphey an Ottoman Studies professor has described as the pax Ottomanica Kiraly Bela K ed 1975 The Ottoman aspects of Pax Ottomanica Tolerance and movements of religious dissent in Eastern Europe East European Quarterly ISBN 978 0 914710 06 6 Muzaffar Husain Syed Syed Saud Akhtar B D Usmani 2011 Concise History of Islam Vij Books India Pvt Ltd p 150 ISBN 978 93 82573 47 0 Retrieved 22 September 2017 Abu Rehab Mohammad 9 May 2014 دراسة في مضمون النقوش الكتابية علي عمائر الأشراف السعديين بالمغرب الأقصي 915 1069هــ 1510 1658م A Study on the Content of the Inscriptions on the Buildings of the Sharifian Saadi Dynasty of Morocco During the Period between AH 915 1069 151069 1510 1658 CE Abgadiyat 9 1 150 194 doi 10 1163 22138609 90000027 ISSN 2213 8609 Stanford Jay Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire Cambridge University Press 1977 p 77 Andrew J Newman Safavid Iran Rebirth of a Persian Empire IB Tauris 30 March 2006 Kia Mehrdad 2017 The Ottoman Empire A Historical Encyclopedia ABC CLIO p 131 ISBN 978 1610693899 In October 1638 Ottoman forces returned to Mesopotamia stormed Baghdad and captured the city in December despite sustaining heavy casualties These included the grand vizier who was killed leading the assault Sykes 2 211 The Safavids were forced to sue for peace On May 17 1639 the Ottoman Empire and Iran signed a treaty Paul Bairoch 1995 Economics and World History Myths and Paradoxes University of Chicago Press p 107 Archived from the original on 12 October 2017 Retrieved 3 January 2020 Afghanistan History Archived 13 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine U S Department of State retrieved 10 October 2006 Ira M Lapidus A History of Islamic Societies Cambridge 1988 Helen Miller Aubrey Newman Early modern British history 1485 1760 a select bibliography Historical Association 1970 Early Modern Period 1485 1800 Archived 6 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Sites Organized by Period Rutgers University Libraries Chase Kenneth 2003 Firearms A Global History to 1700 Cambridge University Press p 61 ISBN 978 0 521 82274 9 Online Etymology Dictionary Archived from the original on 29 June 2017 Retrieved 8 July 2009 A Greek mathematician Aristarchus of Samos had already discussed heliocentric hypotheses as early as the third century BCE However there is little evidence that he ever developed his ideas beyond a very basic outline Dreyer 1953 pp 135 148 Linton 2004 p 39 Wexler Philip 2017 Toxicology in the Middle Ages and Renaissance Academic Press p 2 ISBN 978 0 12 809559 1 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Levere Trevor H 2001 Transforming Matter A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball JHU Press p 14 ISBN 978 0 8018 6610 4 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Corrain Lucia 2008 The Art of the Renaissance The Oliver Press Inc p 28 ISBN 978 1 934545 04 1 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Strickland Carol Boswell John 2007 The Annotated Mona Lisa A Crash Course in Art History from Prehistoric to Post Modern Andrews McMeel Publishing ISBN 978 0 7407 6872 9 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Celinscak Mark Hutt Curtis 2021 Artistic Representations of Suffering Rights Resistance and Remembrance Rowman amp Littlefield p 61 ISBN 978 1 5381 5292 8 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Carl Klaus H Manca Joseph McShane Megan 2016 30 Millennia of Painting Parkstone International p 412 ISBN 978 1 68325 359 4 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Sporre Dennis J 1990 The Creative Impulse An Introduction to the Arts Prentice Hall p 283 ISBN 978 0 13 189754 0 Archived from the original on 16 February 2022 Retrieved 16 February 2022 Jones Barrie 2014 The Hutchinson Concise Dictionary of Music Routledge p 478 ISBN 978 1 135 95018 7 Archived from the original on 16 February 2022 Retrieved 16 February 2022 The title was derived from his savage behavior against his enemies and particularly from a war with France in late 1471 frustrated by the refusal of the French to engage in open battle and angered by French attacks on his unprotected borders in Hainault and Flanders Charles marched his army back from the Ile de France to Burgundian territory burning over two thousand towns villages and castles on his way Taylor Aline S Isabel of Burgundy Lanham Md Madison Books c2001 pp 212 213 Wingfield George 2009 Belgium Infobase Publishing p 31 ISBN 978 1 4381 0486 7 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Mead Walter Russell 2014 God and Gold Britain America and the Making of the Modern World Atlantic Books p 90 ISBN 978 1 78239 600 0 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Cartellieri Otto 2013 The Court of Burgundy Routledge p 80 ISBN 978 1 136 20406 7 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Vaughan Richard Paravicini Werner 2002 Charles the Bold The Last Valois Duke of Burgundy Boydell Press ISBN 978 0 85115 918 8 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Berenger Jean Simpson C A 2014 A History of the Habsburg Empire 1273 1700 Routledge p 124 ISBN 978 1 317 89570 1 Archived from the original on 1 March 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Gunn Steven Grummitt David Cools Hans 2007 War State and Society in England and the Netherlands 1477 1559 OUP Oxford p 12 ISBN 978 0 19 152588 9 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Johnson 2013 p 78 Ring Trudy Watson Noelle Schellinger Paul 2013 Northern Europe International Dictionary of Historic Places Routledge p 126 ISBN 978 1 136 63944 9 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Vagnoni Mirko 2020 Royal Divine Coronation Iconography in the Medieval Euro Mediterranean Area MDPI p 19 ISBN 978 3 03943 751 1 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Johnson Paul 2013 The Renaissance Orion p 78 ISBN 978 1 78022 716 0 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Morrison Elspeth 2007 The Dorothy Dunnett Companion Volume II Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group p 245 ISBN 978 0 307 42844 8 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Bulliet Richard W 2016 The Wheel Inventions and Reinventions Columbia University Press p 159 ISBN 978 0 231 54061 2 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Terjanian Pierre ed 2019 The Last Knight The Art Armor and Ambition of Maximilian I Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 978 1 58839 674 7 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Gal Stephane Bayard Amis de 2007 Bayard histoires croisees du chevalier in French Presses universitaires de Grenoble p 75 ISBN 978 2 7061 1420 5 Archived from the original on 1 February 2020 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreis Kaiserslautern Historischer Verein der Pfalz 1984 Jahrbuch zur Geschichte von Stadt und Landkreis Kaiserslautern in German Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreis Kaiserslautern Historischer Verein der Pfalz p 197 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Durian Ress Saskia 1993 Badische Burgen aus romantischer Sicht Auswahl aus den Bestanden des Augustinermuseums in German Rombach p 96 ISBN 978 3 7930 0678 7 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Michaud Claude 1996 Hispania Austria Die Katholischen Konige Maximilian I und die Anfange der Casa de Austria in Spanien Los Reyes Catolicos Maximiliano I y los inicios de la Casa de Austria en Espana Revue d Histoire Moderne amp Contemporaine 43 2 371 373 Archived from the original on 16 February 2022 Retrieved 16 February 2022 Brunner Jean Claude 2012 Historical Introduction Medieval Warfare 2 3 The revival of infantry tactics in the Late Middle Ages 2012 6 9 JSTOR 48578016 Archived from the original on 24 September 2021 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Kersken Uwe 2014 Die letzten ihrer Art Die Welt der Ritter Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen zdf Axelrod Alan 2013 Mercenaries A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies CQ Press p 124 ISBN 978 1483364674 Archived from the original on 26 September 2021 Retrieved 20 September 2021 Metzig Gregor 2016 Kommunikation und Konfrontation Diplomatie und Gesandtschaftswesen Kaiser Maximilians I 1486 1519 in German Walter de Gruyter GmbH amp Co KG pp 98 99 ISBN 978 3 11 045673 8 Archived from the original on 28 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Turnbull Stephen 2018 The Art of Renaissance Warfare From The Fall of Constantinople to the Thirty Years War Casemate Publishers p 175 ISBN 978 1 5267 1377 3 Archived from the original on 27 January 2022 Retrieved 27 January 2022 Ninness Richard J 2020 German Imperial Knights Noble Misfits between Princely Authority and the Crown 1479 1648 Routledge pp 65 91 ISBN 978 1 000 28504 8 Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 Howard Kaminsky 2004 The Hussite Revolution 1419 1436 University of Chicago Press ISBN 9780226424903 Pope Calixtus III on the victory at Belgrade Archived from the original on 13 April 2009 Peter H Wilson 2011 The Thirty Years War Europe s Tragedy Belknap Press ISBN 9780674062313 Medieval Sourcebook Inquisition Introduction Archived from the original on 14 August 2014 Retrieved 8 July 2009 Simon Edith 1966 Great Ages of Man The Reformation Time Life Books pp 120 121 ISBN 978 0 662 27820 7 Davies Norman 1996 Europe A History Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0198201717 Hansen Joseph Witchcraft in Europe 400 1700 A Documentary History University of Pennsylvania Press 2001 Mayer Thomas 2013 The Roman Inquisition A Papal Bureaucracy and Its Laws in the Age of Galileo University of Pennsylvania Press Olin John C The Catholic Reformation Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola Fordham University Press 1992 ISBN 978 0823212750 Frank D McConnell Storytelling and Mythmaking Images from Film and Literature Archived 21 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University Press 1979 ISBN 0 19 502572 5 Quote from p 78 But Ivan IV Ivan the Terrible or as the Russian has it Ivan Groznyi Ivan the Magnificent or Ivan the Awesome is precisely a man who has become a legend Solovyov S 2001 History of Russia from the Earliest Times Vol 6 AST pp 562 604 ISBN 978 5 17 002142 0 Skrynnikov R 1981 Ivan the Terrible Academic Intl Pr p 219 ISBN 978 0 87569 039 1 Konstam Angus Pirates The Complete History from 1300 BC to the Present Day Osprey Publishing 2008 ISBN 9781846032400 Rediker Marcus Villains of All Nations Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age Beacon Press 2004 ISBN 9780807050255 Leeson Peter T The Invisible Hook The Hidden Economics of Pirates Princeton University Press 2009 ISBN 9780691137477 BBC Science amp Nature Leonardo da Vinci Archived 5 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 12 May 2007 BBC History Michelangelo Archived 25 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 12 May 2007 Palmer Robert Roswell 1962 A History of the Modern World Knopf p 234 OCLC 1000384424 James Lockhart and Stuart B Schwartz Early Latin America New York Cambridge University Press 1983 page needed Treaty of Paris 1783 16 April 2021 Armitage David The Ideological Origins of the British Empire Cambridge University Press 2000 ISBN 9780521789783 Olin John C The Catholic Reformation Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola Reform in the Church 1495 1540 Fordham University Press 1992 ISBN 0 8232 1275 0 Ditchfield Simon The Catholic Reformation Renaissance Studies vol 15 no 3 2001 pp 390 409 DOI 10 1111 1477 4658 00088 Machamer Peter 1998 The Cambridge Companion to Galileo Cambridge University Press p 393 Principe Lawrence M 2011 The Scientific Revolution A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press p 65 Hawking Stephen 2001 The Universe in a Nutshell Bantam Books p 66 White Michael 1998 Isaac Newton The Last Sorcerer Basic Books Nutton Vivian 2004 Ancient Medicine Routledge p 204 Wear Andrew 2000 Knowledge and Practice in English Medicine 1550 1680 Cambridge University Press pp 278 280 Maxwell Stuart P G 2012 The Chemical Choir A History of Alchemy Continuum Ring Malvin E 1992 Pierre Fauchard and the Founding of Modern Dentistry Journal of the History of Dentistry Riedel Stefan 2005 Edward Jenner and the History of Smallpox and Vaccination Proceedings Baylor University Medical Center Bowler Peter J 2009 Evolution The History of an Idea University of California Press Bladon Christine 2020 Seeing the Invisible Microscopes and Microscopists from the 17th to the 19th Century Oxford University Press Anderson Margaret J 2009 Carl Linnaeus Father of Classification Enslow Publishers Cutler Alan 2003 The Seashell on the Mountaintop Dutton pp 134 136 Heilbron John L 1979 Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries A Study of Early Modern Physics University of California Press Robins Robert H 1997 A Short History of Linguistics Longman pp 160 163 Heilbroner Robert 1999 The Worldly Philosophers The Lives Times and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers Simon amp Schuster Israel Jonathan I Radical Enlightenment Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650 1750 Oxford University Press 2001 ISBN 978 0198206088 Outram Dorinda The Enlightenment Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 978 0521546812 Gaukroger Stephen Descartes An Intellectual Biography Oxford University Press 1995 ISBN 978 0198239949 Jacob Margaret C The Scientific Revolution A Brief History with Documents Bedford St Martin s 2010 ISBN 978 0312539481 Kant Immanuel Metaphysics Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 27 June 2013 Retrieved 4 July 2011 Gardner Sebastian Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason Routledge 1999 ISBN 978 0415119099 Barry John M Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul Viking 2012 ISBN 978 0670023059 Proust Jacques Diderot et l Encyclopedie A Colin 1962 Porter Roy The Enlightenment Palgrave 2001 ISBN 978 0333964500 Berlin Isaiah Against the Current Essays in the History of Ideas Princeton University Press 2001 ISBN 978 0691090269 Paul Oskar Kristeller Humanism pp 113 114 in Charles B Schmitt Quentin Skinner editors The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy 1990 She was the author of Miroir de l ame pecheresse The Mirror of a Sinful Soul published after her death among other devotional poetry See also Marguerite de Navarre Religious Reformist in Jonathan A Reid King s sister queen of dissent Marguerite of Navarre 1492 1549 and her evangelical network dead link Studies in medieval and Reformation traditions 1573 4188 v 139 Leiden Boston Brill 2009 2 v xxii 795 p ISBN 978 90 04 17760 4 v 1 ISBN 978 9004177611 v 2 Bengsston Tommy 2004 12 Infant and Child Mortality Life Under Pressure Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia 1700 1900 The MIT Press ISBN 978 0262025515 Laqueur Thomas 2015 The Work of the Dead A Cultural History of Mortal Remains Princeton University ISBN 978 0691157788 Ward Richard 2015 Introduction to A Global History of Execution and the Criminal Corpse PDF doi 10 1057 9781137577931 inactive 1 November 2024 ISBN 978 1137577931 PMID 27559562 Archived PDF from the original on 28 October 2020 Retrieved 3 September 2020 a href wiki Template Cite book title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of November 2024 link Works cited Bose Sugata Jalal Ayesha 2003 Modern South Asia History Culture Political Economy 2nd ed Routledge ISBN 0 415 30787 2 External linksInternet Modern History Sourcebook fordham edu Discussion of the medieval modern transition from the introduction to the pioneering Cambridge Modern History 1902 1912 Society for Renaissance Studies Early Modern Culture archived 25 September 2011 Early Modern ResourcesPreceded byPostclassical Era History by period about 1500 1800 CE Succeeded bymodern period