The Mande languages are a family of languages spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mandé peoples. They include Maninka (Malinke), Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Kpelle, Jula (Dioula), Bozo, Mende, Susu, and Vai. There are around 60 to 75 languages spoken by 30 to 40 million people, chiefly in Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) and also in southern Mauritania, northern Ghana, northwestern Nigeria and northern Benin.
| Mande | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | West Africa |
| Ethnicity | Mandé peoples |
| Linguistic classification | Niger–Congo?
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Mande |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-5 | dmn |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| Linguasphere | 00- (phylozone) |
| Glottolog | mand1469 |
 | |
The Mande languages show a few lexical similarities with the Atlantic–Congo language family, so together they have been proposed as parts of a larger Niger–Congo language family since the 1950s. However, the Mande languages lack the noun-class morphology that is the primary identifying feature of the Atlantic–Congo languages. Accordingly, linguists increasingly treat Mande and Atlantic–Congo as independent language families.
History
Various opinions exist as to the age of the Mande languages.
Valentin Vydrin concluded that "the Mande homeland at the second half of the 4th millennium BC was located in Southern Sahara, somewhere to the North of 16° or even 18° of Northern latitude and between 3° and 12° of Western longitude.". That is now Mauritania and southern Western Sahara.
If Mande's linguistic affiliation were clearer that would help inform its history. For example, Joseph Greenberg suggested that the Niger-Congo group, which in his view includes the Mande language family, began to break up at around 7000 years BP. Its speakers would have practised a Neolithic culture, as indicated by the Proto-Niger-Congo words for "cow", "goat" and "cultivate".
Early scholarship
The group was first recognized in 1854 by Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle, in his Polyglotta Africana. He mentioned 13 languages under the heading North-Western High-Sudan Family, or Mandéga Family of Languages. In 1901, Maurice Delafosse made a distinction of two groups. He speaks of a northern group mandé-tan and a southern group mandé-fu. The distinction was basically done only because the languages in the north use the expression tan for ten, and the southern languages use fu. In 1924, Louis Tauxier noted that the distinction is not well founded and there is at least a third subgroup he called mandé-bu. It was not until 1950 that André Prost supported that view and gave further details.
In 1958, Welmers published an article called "The Mande Languages," where he divided the languages into three subgroups: North-West, South and East. His conclusion was based on lexicostatistic research. Joseph Greenberg followed that distinction in his The Languages of Africa (1963). Long (1971) and Gérard Galtier (1980) follow the distinction into three groups but with notable differences.
Classification
Relation to Niger-Congo
Mande does not share the morphology characteristic of most of the Niger–Congo family, such as the noun-class system. Nor are there many recognized cognates in core vocabulary between Mande and Niger-Congo. Accordingly, Dimmendaal (2008) argues that the evidence for inclusion is slim, and that for now Mande is best considered an independent family. The same view is held by Güldemann (2018).
Without definitively concluding that Mande is or is not a member of Niger–Congo, Vydrin (2016) notes that proto-Mande basic vocabulary fits relatively well with Niger–Congo, and that typological criteria such as the absence of a noun-class system should not be taken as probative; he notes that "If the position of Mande within Niger-Congo is confirmed... Mande will certainly represent the most ancient branching of the phylum". Blench regards it as an early branch that diverged before the noun-class morphology developed. Dwyer (1998) compared it with other branches of Niger–Congo and finds that they form a coherent family, with Mande being the most divergent of the branches he considered.
Internal classification
The diversity and depth of the Mande family is comparable to that of Indo-European. Eleven low-level branches of Mande are nearly universally accepted: Southern Mande (Dan etc.), Eastern Mande (Bisa, Boko etc.), Samogo, Bobo, Soninke–Bozo, Southwestern Mande (Mende, Kpelle, Loma etc.), Soso–Jalonke, Jogo, Vai–Kono, Mokole and Manding (Bambara, Djula etc.). It is also widely accepted that these form two primary branches, the first two as Southeastern Mande and the rest as Western Mande.
Most internal Mande classifications are based on lexicostatistics, for example, that based on the Swadesh list. An alternative classification from Kastenholz (1996) is based on lexical innovations and comparative linguistics. Kastenholz warns however that this is not based on objective criteria and thus is not a genealogical classification in the narrow sense. The following classification is acompilation of both.
- Mande
- Southeast Mande
- Southern Mande (Dan, Mah, etc.)
- Eastern Mande (Bisa, Busa, etc.)
- West Mande
- Central West (Manding–Kpelle)
- Central Mande
- Susu–Yalunka
- Manding–Jɔgɔ
- Jogo languages
- Manding–Vai
- Vai–Kono
- Manding–Mokole
- Manding languages
- Mokole languages
- Southwest Mande (Mende, Kpelle, etc.)
- Central Mande
- Northwest (Samogo–Soninke)
- Jɔ (Jowulu)
- Northwest proper
- Samogo languages (partial: Duun–Sembla)
- Soninke–Bobo
- Bɔbɔ
- Soninke–Bozo
- Central West (Manding–Kpelle)
- Southeast Mande
Vydrin (2009) differs somewhat from this: he places Soso-Jalonke with Southwestern (a return to André Prost 1953); Soninke-Bozo, Samogho and Bobo as independent branches of Western Mande, and Mokole with Vai-Kono. Most classifications place Jo within Samogo.
Morphosyntactic features
Mande languages do not have the noun-class system or verbal extensions of the Atlantic–Congo languages and for which the Bantu languages are so famous, but Bobo has causative and intransitive forms of the verb. Southwestern Mande languages and Soninke have initial consonant mutation. Plurality is most often marked with a clitic; in some languages, with tone, as for example in Sembla. Pronouns often have alienable–inalienable and inclusive–exclusive distinctions. Word order in transitive clauses is subject–auxiliary–object–verb–adverb. Mainly postpositions are used. Within noun phrases, possessives come before the noun, and adjectives and plural markers after the verb; demonstratives are found with both orders.
Comparative vocabulary
Below is a sample basic vocabulary of reconstructed proto-forms:
| Language | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | blood | bone | tree | water | eat | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Mande | *ɲíŋ | *lɛɓ̰́ Ṽ | *yíti | |||||||||
| Proto-West Mande | *túli | *sʸúN | *ɲíN | **nɛ̌N | *dá ~ ɗá | *jío ~ yío | *gúri ~ wúri | *jío ~ yío | *tɔ́ko | |||
| Proto-Manding (Mandekan) | *nya | *tulo | *nun | *nyin | *nɛn(e) | *da | *joli | *kolo | *yiri | *ji | *domo(n) | *tɔgɔ |
| Proto-East Mande (Niger-Volta) | *jɛN (< *gɛN) | *toro | *N-jẽ | *soN(-ka) | *N-lɛ | *lɛ | *(N-)wa(-ru) | *(N-)gero | *li/*da | *jiN | *be(-le) | *tɔ |
| Proto-South Mande | *yũ̀ã́ | *tɔ́lɔ́ŋ | *yṹã̄ | *sɔ̃̀ɛ̃́ | *nã̄nɛ̃́ | *ɗé | *yɔ̃̀mũ̄ | *wɔ̃́nɛ̃́ | *yílí | *yí | *ɓɪ̀lɪ̀ | *tɔ́ |
Below are some cognates from D. J. Dwyer (1988) (⟨j⟩ is [dʲ] or [d͡ʒ]):
| GLOSS | PROTO- MANDÉ | Manding | Kono-Vai | Susu | Mandé (SW) | Soninké | Sembla | Bobo | San | Busa | Mano | Dan | Guro | Mwa |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'mouth' | *da | da | da | dɛ | la | laqqe | jo | do | le | le | le | Di | le | le, di |
| 'saliva' | *da-yi | da-ji | da- | sɛ-ye | la-yi | laxan-ji | jon-fago | dibe | se | le-i | le-yi | Di-li | leri | liri |
| 'water' | *yi | je | yi | yi | ya | ji | jo | ji, zio | mun | i | yi | yi | yi | yi |
| 'breast' | *n-koŋ | sin | susu | sisi | ŋeni | konbe | kye | ɲiŋi | ɲo | ɲo | ɲoŋ | ɲoŋ | ɲoŋ | ɲoŋ |
| 'milk' | *n-kon-yi | nɔnɔ | susu-ji | xin-yɛ | gen-iya | -xatti | kye-n-dyo | n-yan-niŋi | n-yo- | n-yoŋ-yi | n-yoŋ-yi | |||
| 'goat' | *bo(re) | ba | ba | ɓoli | sugo | bi | gwa | bwe | ble | bɔ | bɔ | bori | bɔ | |
| 'buck' | *bore-guren | ba-koro | diggeh | gu-gura | ble-sa | bɔ-gon | bɔ-gon | gyagya | bɔ-guren | |||||
| 'sheep' | *saga | saga | bara-wa | yexe | ɓara | jaxe | sega | sɛge | sere | sa | baa | bla | bera | bla |
| 'ram' | *saga-guren | saga-koro | jaxampade | kekyere | si-gula | da-gu | bla-gon | bra-gon | bla-gure | |||||
| 'head' | * | Koun-kolo | yin-kola |
Note that in these cognates:
- 'saliva' = 'mouth'+'water'
- 'milk' = 'breast'+'water'
- 'buck (he-goat)' = 'goat'+'male'
- 'ram' = 'sheep'+'male'
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bissa | Bissa (Bisa) | díí | píjà | kakʊ́ | sɪ̀ | sɔ́ɔ̀ | sòàtɪ (5 + 1) | sáápra (5 + 2) | síɲe (2 x 4) ? | nɛfʊ̀ (10 -1) ? | bʊ̀ |
| Busa | Boko | do | pla | ʔààɔ̃ | sííɔ̃ | sɔ́o | soolo (5 + 1) | sopla (5 + 2) | swaàɔ̃ (5 + 3) | kɛ̃̀okwi [ litː tear away 1 (from) 10 ] | kwi |
| Busa | Bokobaru (Zogbẽ) | do | pláa | ʔààɡɔ̃ | sííɡɔ̃ | sɔ́ɔ́ro | swɛ́ɛ̀do (5 + 1) | swɛ́ɛ̀pláa (5 + 2) | sɔ́rààɡɔ̃ (5 + 3) | kɛ̃́ndo (10–1) | kurì |
| Busa | Illo Busa | do | pia | ʔààkɔ̃ | ʃííkɔ̃ | sɔ́o | sóodo (5 + 1) | soopia (5 + 2) | swààkɔ̃ (5 + 3) | kĩ́ṇdokwi [litː tear away 1 (from) 10] | kwi |
| Busa | Busa | do | pla | ʔààkɔ̃ | sííkɔ̃ | sɔ́ɔ́ro | súddo (5 + 1) | súppla (5 + 2) | sɔ́rààkɔ̃ (5 + 3) | kɛ̃́ndo (10–1) | kurì |
| Kyanga | Kyanga (Kyenga) (1) | dúú | fʸáā | ˀāàː | ʃíí | sɔ́ɔ́rū | sɔ̄ɔ̄dū (5 + 1) | sʷāhʸáā (5 + 2) | sōōwà (5 + 3) | sòòʃí (5 + 4) | kōōrì |
| Kyanga | Kyanga (Kyenga) (2) | dūː | fʲâː | ʔàː | ʃíː | sɔ̂ːwû | sɔ̂ːdū (5 + 1) | sɔ̂ːfʲá (5 + 2) | sōːuwà (5 + 3) | sōwēʃíː (5 + 4) | kōːlì |
| Kyanga | Kyenga (3) | do | hia / fia | ʔà | ʃí | sɔɔlu | sɔɔdu (5 + 1) | sɔɔhia (5 + 2) | soowà (5 + 3) | sooʃí (5 + 4) | korì |
| Kyanga | Shanga | do | ʍa | ʔà | ʃí | sɔ́ɔ | sɔbodo (5 + 1) | sɔhia (5 + 2) | sɔboʔà (5 + 3) | sɔdoʃí (5 + 4) | wókòì |
| Samo | Matya Samo | ɡɔ̀rɔ́ | prá | tjɔwɔ | sí | sɔ́rɔ́ | sɛ̀rɛ́ (5 + 1) | tjʊ́sʊ́ (5 + 2) | tjisí (2 x 4) | ménaŋɡɔrɔ (10–1) | flè / fʊ̀ |
| Samo | Maya Samo | dɛ́nɛ́ | fúrá | kàakú | síirí | sɔ́ɔrɔ́ | sɔ̀rɔ̀ (5 + 1) | sɔ̀frá (5 + 2) | cíɡísí (2 x 4 ) ? | sóosí (5 + 4) ? | bù |
| Guro-Tura | Guro | dʊ | fíé | yaá | zĩ̀ɛ̃́ | sólú | sʊɛdʊ / sʊɛlʊ (5 + 1) | sʊlàyíé (5 + 2) | sʊlaá (5 + 3) | sʊlàzĩ̀ɛ̃́ (5 + 4) | vu |
| Guro-Tura | Yaouré | tʊ̀ | fli̋ | yaaɡa | sĩjɛ̃ = sĩɟɛ̃ or sĩd͡ʒɛ̃ | sóolu | ʃɛ́dʊ (5 + 1) | sɔ́ravli (5 + 2) | sɔ́ra (5 + 3) | sɔ́rasiɛ̃ (5 + 4) | fù |
| Guro-Tura | Mann (Mano) | doó | pèèlɛ | yààka | yììsɛ | sɔ́ɔ́li | sáláádo (5 + 1) | sálápèèlɛ (5 + 2) | sálàka (5 + 3) | sɛ́lɛ̀ìsɛ (5 + 4) | vũ̀ |
| Nwa-Ben | Beng | do | plaŋ | ŋaŋ | siéŋ | sɔ́ŋ | sɔ́do (5 + 1) | sɔ́pla (5 + 2) | sɔ́wa (5 + 3) | sisi (5 + 4) | ebu |
| Nwa-Ben | Gagu | dò | fɪ́n | yía | zié | súu | sɛ́dò (5 + 1) | sɛ́fɪ́n (5 + 2) | sɛà (5 + 3) | tízie (5 + 4) | vù |
| Nwa-Ben | Mwan (Muan) | do | plɛ | yaɡa | yiziɛ | sóó | srɔádo (5 + 1) | srɔáplɛ (5 + 2) | srɔ́a (5 + 3) | srɔáyiziɛ (5 + 4) | vu |
| Nwa-Ben | Wan | do | pilɔŋ | ʔã́ | sijá | sɔ̀lú | wáŋ́ | séaʔã́ (5 + 2) | séjãŋ́ (5 + 3) | sɔlásijá (5 + 4) | sɔ́jɔlú |
| Jogo-Jeri | Jalkunan | dúlì | fìlɑ̀ | siɡ͡bù | nɑ̄ːnī | sōːlō | mìːlù | mɑ̀ɑ́lɑ̀ | mɑ̀sīɡ͡bū (5 + 3) | mɑ́nɑ̄nì (5 + 4) | tɑ̄ |
| Jogo-Jeri | Ligbi | díén / díyé | fàlà / fàlá | sèɡ͡bá / siɡ͡bá | náánè / náani | sóólò / sóolo | mɔ̀ɔ̀dó / mooró (5 + 1) | màúlà / mafála (5 + 2) | másèɡ͡bá / masiɡ͡bá (5 + 3) | màdááné / maráni (5 + 4) | táàn / táa |
| Manding | Marka (Dafing) | kyen / kyeren | fila / fila | saba / saba | nɛi / naani | luu / luuru[check spelling] | wɔɔ / wɔɔrɔ | wəna / wonla | sii / siɡi | konon / kondon | tan / tan |
| Manding | Bambara | kélen [kélẽ́] | fìla [fìlá] | sàba [sàbá] | náani [náːní] | dúuru [dúːrú] | wɔ́ɔrɔ [wɔ́ːrɔ́] | wólonwula [wólṍwulá] | sèɡin [sèɡĩ́] | kɔ̀nɔntɔn [kɔ̀nɔ̃̀tɔ̃́] | tán [tã́] |
| Manding | Jula (1) | kelen [ké.lẽ́] | filà [fì.là] ~ [flà] | sàbà [sà.bà] | nàànìn [nàːnĩ̀] | dùùrù [dù.ɾù] | wɔ̀ɔ̀rɔ̀ [wɔ̀ːɾɔ́] | wolon fìlà [wò.lṍ.fi.̀là] | sieɡi [sí.é.ɡí] | kɔ̀nɔ̀ndon [kɔ.̀nɔ̃.ⁿdṍ] | tan [tã́] |
| Manding | Jula (2) | kelen [kélẽ́] | fila [fìlá] / fla [flá] | saba [sàbá] | naani [náːní] | looru [lóːrú] | wɔɔrɔ [wɔ́ːrɔ́] | wolonfila [wólṍfìlá] / wolonfla | seɡin [sèɡĩ́] / seeɡi [sèːɡí] | kɔnɔntɔn [kɔ̀nɔ̃̀tɔ̃́] | tan [tã́] |
| Manding | Sankaran Maninka | kɛlɛn | fila | sawa | naani | loolu / looli | wɔɔrɔn | wɔɔrɔn (fi)la | sen | konondo | tan |
| Manding | Mahou | kéléŋ | fyàà | sàwà | náání | lóó | wɔ́ɔ́lɔ́ | wóóŋvyàà | sɛ́ɲíŋ | kɔ̀ɔ̀nŋdɔ́ŋ | táŋ |
| Manding | Mandinka | kíliŋ | fula | saba | náani | lúulu | wóoro | wórówula | sáyi | konónto | táŋ |
| Manding | Xaasonga | kilin | fula | saba | naani | luulu | wooro | woorowula | saɡi | xononto | tan |
| Mokole | Kakabe | kélen | fìla | sàba | náani | lɔ́ɔlu | wɔ́ɔrɔ | wɔ́rɔwila (6 + 1) | sáɡin | kɔ̀nɔntɔ | tán |
| Mokole | Kuranko | kelen | fila | sawa / saba | nani | loli | wɔrɔ | wɔrɔnfila (6 + 1) ? | seɡin | kɔnɔnt | tan |
| Mokole | Lele | kelɛŋ | fela | sawa | nani | luuli | wɔɔrɔ | wɔrɔŋ kela (6 + 1) | seŋ | kɔnɔndɔ | taŋ |
| Vai-Kono | Kono | ncélen / ncéle, dɔ́ndo | fèa | sàwa | náani | dúʔu | wɔ́ɔlɔ | wɔ́nfèa / ɔ́ɱfèa | séi / séin | kɔ̀nɔ́ntɔn | tán |
| Vai-Kono | Vai | lɔ̀ndɔ́ | fɛ̀(ʔ)á | sàk͡pá | náánì | sóó(ʔ)ú | sɔ̂ŋ lɔ̀ndɔ́ (5 + 1) | sɔ̂ŋ fɛ̀(ʔ)á (5 + 2) | sɔ̂ŋ sàk͡pá (5 + 3) | sɔ̂ŋ náánì (5 + 4) | tâŋ |
| Susu-Yalunka | Susu | kérén [kɛ́rɛ̃́] | fìrín [fìrĩ́] | sàxán [sàxã́] | náání | súlí | sénní [sẽní] (5 + 1) | sólófèré (5 + 2) | sólómásàxán (5 + 3) | sólómánáání (5 + 4) | fuú |
| Susu-Yalunka | Yalunka (1) | kèdé | fìríŋ | sàkáŋ | nànì | sùlù | sènì (5 + 1) | fòlófɛ̀rɛ́ (5 + 2) | fòlòmàsàkáŋ (5 + 3) | fòlòmànànì (5 + 4) | fù |
| Susu-Yalunka | Yalunka (Jalonke) (2) | keden | fidin | saxan | naani | suuli | sɛnni (5 + 1) | solofɛdɛ (5 + 2) | solomasɛɡɛ (5 + 3) | solomanaani (5 + 4) | fuu |
| Kpelle | Guinea Kpelle | tááŋ | hvèèlɛ̌ / hvèèlɛ́ | hààbǎ / hààbá | nááŋ́ | lɔ́ɔ́lí | mɛ̀í dà (5 + 1) | mɛ̀ì hvéélɛ̀ (5 + 2) | mɛ̀ì háábà (5 + 3) | mɛ̀ì nááŋ́ (5 + 4) | pòǔ |
| Kpelle | Liberia Kpelle | taaŋ / tɔnɔ / dɔnɔ | feerɛ | saaɓa | náaŋ | nɔ́ɔlu / lɔ́ɔlu | mɛi da (5 + 1) | mɛi feerɛ (5 + 2) | mɛi saaɓa (5 + 3) | mɛi náaŋ (5 + 4) | puu |
| Mende-Loma | Looma (Toma) (1) | ɡílàɡ | félé(ɡɔ̀) | sáwà(ɡɔ̀) | náánĩ̀(ɡɔ̀) | dɔ́ɔ́lù̀(ɡɔ̀) | dòzìtà (5 + 1) | dɔ́fèlà (5 + 2) | dɔ́sáwà (5 + 3) | tàwù̀(ɡɔ̀) (10–1) ? | pù̀(ɡɔ̀) |
| Mende-Loma | Loma (2) | ɡila | feleɡɔ | saaɡɔ | naaɡɔ | dooluo | dɔzita (5 + 1) | dɔfela (5 + 2) | dɔsava (5 + 3) | taawu (10–1) ? | puu |
| Mende-Loma | Bandi (1) | ìtá(ŋ), hítà(ŋ) | fèlé(ŋ) | sàwá(ŋ), sàá(ŋ) | náánì(ŋ) | ndɔ̀ɔ́lú(ŋ) | nɡɔ̀hítá(ŋ) (5 + 1) | ŋɡɔ̀félà(ŋ) (5 + 2) | ŋɡɔ̀hák͡pá(ŋ), ŋɡwahák͡pá(ŋ) (5+ 4) | tààwú(ŋ), tààvú(ŋ) (10–1) ? | pû(ŋ), púù(ŋ) |
| Mende-Loma | Bandi (2) | iitá | feelé | saawá | naáni | ndɔɔ́lu | nɡɔhíta (5 + 1) | nɡɔféla (5 + 2) | nɡwahák͡pa (5 + 3) | taávu (10–1) ? | púu |
| Mende-Loma | Loko (1) | íla(ŋ) | félé(ŋ), féé(ŋ) | sáwá(ŋ), cáwá(ŋ) | nááí(ŋ) | ńdɔu(ŋ) | ŋɡɔhita (5 + 1) | ŋɡɔfɛla (5 + 2) | ŋɡɔsaak͡pa | karaabu, raabu | puu(ŋ), kapuu(ŋ) |
| Mende-Loma | Loko (2) | ila | fele | itʃawa | naiŋ | ndɔu | nɡɔita (5 + 1) | nɡɔfla (5 + 2) | nɡɔsaɡ͡ba (5 + 3) | karabu (10–1) ? | kapu |
| Mende-Loma | Mende | yilá / itáá | felé | sawá | nááni | lɔ́ɔ́lu | wɔ́íta (5 + 1) | wɔ́fíla (5 + 2) | wáyák͡pá (5 + 3) | táálú (10–1) ? | puú |
| Samogo | Duungooma | sɔʔi | fíʔi | ʒiʔi | naai | nũ | tũmɛ̃ | ɲɛ̃ːnũ | ŋaai | kleːlo | ceũ |
| Samogo | Dzùùngoo | sōː ́ / sōːrē | fíː / fíːkí | ʒìːɡī ́ | nàːlẽ́ | nũ̀ | tsũ̀mɛ̃̄ ́ | ɲɛ̃̀ːnṹ | ŋáːlõ̀ | kjèːrṍ | tsjéù |
| Samogo | Jowulu (Jo) | tẽẽna | fuuli | bʒei | pʃɪrɛᶦ | tãã | tãmãnɪ (5 + 1) | dʒɔ̃mpʊn (3 + 4) | fulpʊn (2 x 4) | tẽmpʊn (5 + 4) | bʒĩĩ |
| Samogo | Seeku | swɛ̃̄ | fĩ́ | ʃwɛ̀ | nàà | nɔ̄ | tsìì | ɲɛ̀ɛ̀ | kàà | kùòmɛ̀ | tó |
| Soninke-Bobo | Konabéré | tálɪ̄ | pálà | sǎ | nìã̄ | kʊ̄ | kʊ̀tã́nɪ̀ (5 + 1) | kʊ̀rʊ̀párá (5 + 2) | kʊ̀rʊ̀sɔ̄ʊ̀ (5 + 3) | kʊ̀rʊ̀nɔ̂ŋ (5 + 4) | m̥ḿ̩ |
| Soninke-Bobo | Southern Bobo Madare | tèlé | plá | sáà | náà | kóò | kònálá (5 + 1) | kòk͡pùrá (5 + 2) | kórósɔ̃̌ (5 + 3) | kórónɔ̃̌ (5 + 4) | fʊ̃̀ |
| Soninke-Bobo | Hainyaxo Bozo (Kelenga) | sâ:nà | fíenù | sí:yù | ná:nà | kɔ́lɔ́hɔ̀ | tú:mì | dʒíenì | sɛ́kì | káfì | tã̄ |
| Soninke-Bobo | Tièmà-Cièwè Bozo | sàn:á | pẽ̀ːndé | sì:yé | nà:rá | kɔ̀lɔ́ | tù:mì | dʒiènĩ́ | tʃèkí | kìáwí | tá |
| Soninke-Bobo | Tiéyaxo Bozo (Tigemaxo) (1) | sáná | fẽ́:ndè | sí:yò | kɔ́lɔ̀ | kɔ́lɔ̀ | tú:mĩ̀ | dʒê:nì | sɛ̄kī | kìáwì | tã́ |
| Soninke-Bobo | Tiéyaxo Bozo (2) | sanna / kuɔn | fendeen / pendeen | siiyon | naaran | kɔlɔn | tuumi | jeeni | sekiin | kiawi | tan |
| Soninke-Bobo | Jenaama Bozo (1) | sànːá | pẽ̀ndéː | síkɛ̃̀ũ | nàtã́ | kɔ̀ːɡṍ | tǔːmí | yíèní | sèkːí | kàpːí | tʃɛ́mí |
| Soninke-Bobo | Jenaama Bozo (2) | sanna | pende | sikɛũ / siɡɛũ | nataũ | kɔɡõ | tuumi | yeeni | seki | kapi | tʃɛmi / tʃami |
| Soninke-Bobo | Soninke | bàanè | fíllò / filːi | síkkò / sikːi | náɣátò / naɣati | káráɡò / karaɡi | tṹmù / tũmi | ɲérù / ɲeri | séɡù / seɡi | kábù / kabi | tã́mú / tãmi |
See also
- List of Proto-Mande reconstructions (Wiktionary)
- List of Proto-West Mande reconstructions (Wiktionary)
- Manding languages
- Mandé
- Mende language
References
- Vydrin, Valentin (2018). "Mande Languages". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.397. ISBN 978-0-19-938465-5.
- Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2008). "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continen t". Language and Linguistics Compass. 2 (5): 840–858. doi:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00085.x. ISSN 1749-818X.
- Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of Africa. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 11. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 58–444. doi:10.1515/9783110421668-002. ISBN 978-3-11-042606-9. S2CID 133888593.
Overall, unless more robust and systematic evidence is brought forward, the long-standing but vague idea that Mande is distant from the rest of Niger-Kordofanian as one of its earliest offshoots should give way to the neutral assessment that it is a family without a proven genealogical affiliation (p. 192).
- Vydrin, Valentin (2009). "On the Problem of the Proto-Mande Homeland" (PDF). Journal of Language Relationships. pp. 107–142.
- McCall, D.F. (1971). "The Cultural Map and Time Profile of the Mande Speaking Peoples". In Hodge, C.T. Hodge (ed.). Papers on the Manding. Bloomington: Indiana University. ISBN 9780877501589.
- Delafosse, Maurice (1901). Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue ... Institut national de langues et civilisations orientales. OCLC 461494818.
- Welmers, William E. (1971). Sebeok, Thomas A.; Berry, Jade; Greenberg, Joseph H. (eds.). "Niger–Congo, Mande". Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa. Current Trends in Linguistics. 7. The Hague: Mouton: 113–140.
- Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2011). Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African Languages. John Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-8722-9.
- Vydrin, Valentin (2016). "Toward a Proto-Mande reconstruction and an etymological dictionary" (PDF). Faits de Langues. 47: 109–123. doi:10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000008. S2CID 56242828.
- "Mande language family". mandelang.kunstkamera.ru. Retrieved 2019-03-25.
- Kastenholz, Raimund (1996). Sprachgeschichte im West-Mande: Methoden und Rekonstruktionen. Köln: Köppe. p. 281. ISBN 3896450719. OCLC 42295840.
- . ISBN 0521661781.
{{cite book}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - Bimson, Kent (1976). "Comparative reconstruction of Mandekan". Studies in African Linguistics. 7 (3).
- Schreiber, Henning (2008). Eine historische Phonologie der Niger-Volta-Sprachen: Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Sprachgeschichte der östlichen Ost-Mandesprachen. R. Köppe. ISBN 978-3-89645-076-0.
- Vydrin, Valentin (2007). "South Mande reconstruction: Initial consonants". Аспекты компаративистики 2. Orientalia et classica. Vol. XI. Труды Института восточных культур и античн.
- Dwyer, David J. (1988). "Towards Proto-Mande phonology" (PDF). Mandenkan. 14/15: 139–152. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-04-09.
- Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
Further reading
- Delafosse, Maurice (1904). Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de soixante langues ou dialectes parlés à la Ivory Coast et dans les régions limitrophes, avec des notes linguistiques et ethnologiques. Paris: Leroux.
- Halaoui, Nazam; Tera, Kalilou; Trabi, Monique (1983). Atlas des langues mandé – sud de Ivory Coast. Abidjan: ACCT-ILA.
- Perekhvalskaya, Elena; Vydrin, Valentin (2019). "Numeral systems in Mande languages" (PDF). Mandenkan. 61: 47–111. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-04-18.
- Steinthal, Heymann (1867). Die Mande-Negersprachen, psychologisch und phonetisch betrachtet. Berlin: Schade.
- Sullivan, Terrence D. (2004) [1983]. A preliminary report of existing information on the Manding languages of West Africa: Summary and suggestions for future research. SIL Electronic Survey Report. Dallas: SIL International.
- Vydrin, Valentin; Bergman, T.G.; Benjamin, Matthew (2000). Mandé language family of West Africa: Location and genetic classification. SIL Electronic Survey Report. Dallas: SIL International.
- Williamson, Kay; Blench, Roger (2000). "Niger-Congo". In Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (eds.). African Languages: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
External links
- LANGUES MANDE
- Mande page of the Journal of West African Languages
- Journal Mandenkan (introduction)
The Mande languages are a family of languages spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mande peoples They include Maninka Malinke Mandinka Soninke Bambara Kpelle Jula Dioula Bozo Mende Susu and Vai There are around 60 to 75 languages spoken by 30 to 40 million people chiefly in Burkina Faso Mali Senegal the Gambia Guinea Guinea Bissau Sierra Leone Liberia Ivory Coast Cote d Ivoire and also in southern Mauritania northern Ghana northwestern Nigeria and northern Benin MandeGeographic distributionWest AfricaEthnicityMande peoplesLinguistic classificationNiger Congo MandeProto languageProto MandeSubdivisionsWestern Mande Eastern MandeLanguage codesISO 639 5 a href https iso639 3 sil org code dmn class extiw title iso639 3 dmn dmn a ISO 639 3 Linguasphere00 phylozone Glottologmand1469 The Mande languages show a few lexical similarities with the Atlantic Congo language family so together they have been proposed as parts of a larger Niger Congo language family since the 1950s However the Mande languages lack the noun class morphology that is the primary identifying feature of the Atlantic Congo languages Accordingly linguists increasingly treat Mande and Atlantic Congo as independent language families HistoryVarious opinions exist as to the age of the Mande languages Valentin Vydrin concluded that the Mande homeland at the second half of the 4th millennium BC was located in Southern Sahara somewhere to the North of 16 or even 18 of Northern latitude and between 3 and 12 of Western longitude That is now Mauritania and southern Western Sahara If Mande s linguistic affiliation were clearer that would help inform its history For example Joseph Greenberg suggested that the Niger Congo group which in his view includes the Mande language family began to break up at around 7000 years BP Its speakers would have practised a Neolithic culture as indicated by the Proto Niger Congo words for cow goat and cultivate Early scholarshipThe group was first recognized in 1854 by Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle in his Polyglotta Africana He mentioned 13 languages under the heading North Western High Sudan Family or Mandega Family of Languages In 1901 Maurice Delafosse made a distinction of two groups He speaks of a northern group mande tan and a southern group mande fu The distinction was basically done only because the languages in the north use the expression tan for ten and the southern languages use fu In 1924 Louis Tauxier noted that the distinction is not well founded and there is at least a third subgroup he called mande bu It was not until 1950 that Andre Prost supported that view and gave further details In 1958 Welmers published an article called The Mande Languages where he divided the languages into three subgroups North West South and East His conclusion was based on lexicostatistic research Joseph Greenberg followed that distinction in his The Languages of Africa 1963 Long 1971 and Gerard Galtier 1980 follow the distinction into three groups but with notable differences ClassificationRelation to Niger Congo Mande does not share the morphology characteristic of most of the Niger Congo family such as the noun class system Nor are there many recognized cognates in core vocabulary between Mande and Niger Congo Accordingly Dimmendaal 2008 argues that the evidence for inclusion is slim and that for now Mande is best considered an independent family The same view is held by Guldemann 2018 Without definitively concluding that Mande is or is not a member of Niger Congo Vydrin 2016 notes that proto Mande basic vocabulary fits relatively well with Niger Congo and that typological criteria such as the absence of a noun class system should not be taken as probative he notes that If the position of Mande within Niger Congo is confirmed Mande will certainly represent the most ancient branching of the phylum Blench regards it as an early branch that diverged before the noun class morphology developed Dwyer 1998 compared it with other branches of Niger Congo and finds that they form a coherent family with Mande being the most divergent of the branches he considered Internal classification The diversity and depth of the Mande family is comparable to that of Indo European Eleven low level branches of Mande are nearly universally accepted Southern Mande Dan etc Eastern Mande Bisa Boko etc Samogo Bobo Soninke Bozo Southwestern Mande Mende Kpelle Loma etc Soso Jalonke Jogo Vai Kono Mokole and Manding Bambara Djula etc It is also widely accepted that these form two primary branches the first two as Southeastern Mande and the rest as Western Mande Most internal Mande classifications are based on lexicostatistics for example that based on the Swadesh list An alternative classification from Kastenholz 1996 is based on lexical innovations and comparative linguistics Kastenholz warns however that this is not based on objective criteria and thus is not a genealogical classification in the narrow sense The following classification is acompilation of both Mande Southeast Mande Southern Mande Dan Mah etc Eastern Mande Bisa Busa etc West Mande Central West Manding Kpelle Central Mande Susu Yalunka Manding Jɔgɔ Jogo languages Manding Vai Vai Kono Manding Mokole Manding languages Mokole languages Southwest Mande Mende Kpelle etc Northwest Samogo Soninke Jɔ Jowulu Northwest proper Samogo languages partial Duun Sembla Soninke Bobo Bɔbɔ Soninke Bozo Vydrin 2009 differs somewhat from this he places Soso Jalonke with Southwestern a return to Andre Prost 1953 Soninke Bozo Samogho and Bobo as independent branches of Western Mande and Mokole with Vai Kono Most classifications place Jo within Samogo Morphosyntactic featuresMande languages do not have the noun class system or verbal extensions of the Atlantic Congo languages and for which the Bantu languages are so famous but Bobo has causative and intransitive forms of the verb Southwestern Mande languages and Soninke have initial consonant mutation Plurality is most often marked with a clitic in some languages with tone as for example in Sembla Pronouns often have alienable inalienable and inclusive exclusive distinctions Word order in transitive clauses is subject auxiliary object verb adverb Mainly postpositions are used Within noun phrases possessives come before the noun and adjectives and plural markers after the verb demonstratives are found with both orders Comparative vocabularyBelow is a sample basic vocabulary of reconstructed proto forms Language eye ear nose tooth tongue mouth blood bone tree water eat nameProto Mande ɲiŋ lɛɓ Ṽ yitiProto West Mande tuli sʸuN ɲiN nɛ N da ɗa jio yio guri wuri jio yio tɔ koProto Manding Mandekan nya tulo nun nyin nɛn e da joli kolo yiri ji domo n tɔgɔProto East Mande Niger Volta jɛN lt gɛN toro N jẽ soN ka N lɛ lɛ N wa ru N gero li da jiN be le tɔProto South Mande yũ a tɔ lɔ ŋ yṹa sɔ ɛ na nɛ ɗe yɔ mũ wɔ nɛ yili yi ɓɪ lɪ tɔ Below are some cognates from D J Dwyer 1988 j is dʲ or d ʒ GLOSS PROTO MANDE Manding Kono Vai Susu Mande SW Soninke Sembla Bobo San Busa Mano Dan Guro Mwa mouth da da da dɛ la laqqe jo do le le le Di le le di saliva da yi da ji da sɛ ye la yi laxan ji jon fago dibe se le i le yi Di li leri liri water yi je yi yi ya ji jo ji zio mun i yi yi yi yi breast n koŋ sin susu sisi ŋeni konbe kye ɲiŋi ɲo ɲo ɲoŋ ɲoŋ ɲoŋ ɲoŋ milk n kon yi nɔnɔ susu ji xin yɛ gen iya xatti kye n dyo n yan niŋi n yo n yoŋ yi n yoŋ yi goat bo re ba ba ɓoli sugo bi gwa bwe ble bɔ bɔ bori bɔ buck bore guren ba koro diggeh gu gura ble sa bɔ gon bɔ gon gyagya bɔ guren sheep saga saga bara wa yexe ɓara jaxe sega sɛge sere sa baa bla bera bla ram saga guren saga koro jaxampade kekyere si gula da gu bla gon bra gon bla gure head Koun kolo yin kola Note that in these cognates saliva mouth water milk breast water buck he goat goat male ram sheep male NumeralsComparison of numerals in individual languages Classification Language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Bissa Bissa Bisa dii pija kakʊ sɪ sɔ ɔ soatɪ 5 1 saapra 5 2 siɲe 2 x 4 nɛfʊ 10 1 bʊ Busa Boko do pla ʔaaɔ siiɔ sɔ o soolo 5 1 sopla 5 2 swaaɔ 5 3 kɛ okwi litː tear away 1 from 10 kwiBusa Bokobaru Zogbẽ do plaa ʔaaɡɔ siiɡɔ sɔ ɔ ro swɛ ɛ do 5 1 swɛ ɛ plaa 5 2 sɔ raaɡɔ 5 3 kɛ ndo 10 1 kuriBusa Illo Busa do pia ʔaakɔ ʃiikɔ sɔ o soodo 5 1 soopia 5 2 swaakɔ 5 3 kĩ ṇdokwi litː tear away 1 from 10 kwiBusa Busa do pla ʔaakɔ siikɔ sɔ ɔ ro suddo 5 1 suppla 5 2 sɔ raakɔ 5 3 kɛ ndo 10 1 kuriKyanga Kyanga Kyenga 1 duu fʸaa ˀaaː ʃii sɔ ɔ ru sɔ ɔ du 5 1 sʷahʸaa 5 2 sōōwa 5 3 sooʃi 5 4 kōōriKyanga Kyanga Kyenga 2 duː fʲaː ʔaː ʃiː sɔ ːwu sɔ ːdu 5 1 sɔ ːfʲa 5 2 sōːuwa 5 3 sōweʃiː 5 4 kōːliKyanga Kyenga 3 do hia fia ʔa ʃi sɔɔlu sɔɔdu 5 1 sɔɔhia 5 2 soowa 5 3 sooʃi 5 4 koriKyanga Shanga do ʍa ʔa ʃi sɔ ɔ sɔbodo 5 1 sɔhia 5 2 sɔboʔa 5 3 sɔdoʃi 5 4 wokoiSamo Matya Samo ɡɔ rɔ pra tjɔwɔ si sɔ rɔ sɛ rɛ 5 1 tjʊ sʊ 5 2 tjisi 2 x 4 menaŋɡɔrɔ 10 1 fle fʊ Samo Maya Samo dɛ nɛ fura kaaku siiri sɔ ɔrɔ sɔ rɔ 5 1 sɔ fra 5 2 ciɡisi 2 x 4 soosi 5 4 buGuro Tura Guro dʊ fie yaa zĩ ɛ solu sʊɛdʊ sʊɛlʊ 5 1 sʊlayie 5 2 sʊlaa 5 3 sʊlazĩ ɛ 5 4 vuGuro Tura Yaoure tʊ fli yaaɡa sĩjɛ sĩɟɛ or sĩd ʒɛ soolu ʃɛ dʊ 5 1 sɔ ravli 5 2 sɔ ra 5 3 sɔ rasiɛ 5 4 fuGuro Tura Mann Mano doo peelɛ yaaka yiisɛ sɔ ɔ li salaado 5 1 salapeelɛ 5 2 salaka 5 3 sɛ lɛ isɛ 5 4 vũ Nwa Ben Beng do plaŋ ŋaŋ sieŋ sɔ ŋ sɔ do 5 1 sɔ pla 5 2 sɔ wa 5 3 sisi 5 4 ebuNwa Ben Gagu do fɪ n yia zie suu sɛ do 5 1 sɛ fɪ n 5 2 sɛa 5 3 tizie 5 4 vuNwa Ben Mwan Muan do plɛ yaɡa yiziɛ soo srɔado 5 1 srɔaplɛ 5 2 srɔ a 5 3 srɔayiziɛ 5 4 vuNwa Ben Wan do pilɔŋ ʔa sija sɔ lu waŋ seaʔa 5 2 sejaŋ 5 3 sɔlasija 5 4 sɔ jɔluJogo Jeri Jalkunan duli filɑ siɡ bu nɑ ːni sōːlō miːlu mɑ ɑ lɑ mɑ siɡ bu 5 3 mɑ nɑ ni 5 4 tɑ Jogo Jeri Ligbi dien diye fala fala seɡ ba siɡ ba naane naani soolo soolo mɔ ɔ do mooro 5 1 maula mafala 5 2 maseɡ ba masiɡ ba 5 3 madaane marani 5 4 taan taaManding Marka Dafing kyen kyeren fila fila saba saba nɛi naani luu luuru check spelling wɔɔ wɔɔrɔ wena wonla sii siɡi konon kondon tan tanManding Bambara kelen kelẽ fila fila saba saba naani naːni duuru duːru wɔ ɔrɔ wɔ ːrɔ wolonwula wolṍwula seɡin seɡĩ kɔ nɔntɔn kɔ nɔ tɔ tan ta Manding Jula 1 kelen ke lẽ fila fi la fla saba sa ba naanin naːnĩ duuru du ɾu wɔ ɔ rɔ wɔ ːɾɔ wolon fila wo lṍ fi la sieɡi si e ɡi kɔ nɔ ndon kɔ nɔ ⁿdṍ tan ta Manding Jula 2 kelen kelẽ fila fila fla fla saba saba naani naːni looru loːru wɔɔrɔ wɔ ːrɔ wolonfila wolṍfila wolonfla seɡin seɡĩ seeɡi seːɡi kɔnɔntɔn kɔ nɔ tɔ tan ta Manding Sankaran Maninka kɛlɛn fila sawa naani loolu looli wɔɔrɔn wɔɔrɔn fi la sen konondo tanManding Mahou keleŋ fyaa sawa naani loo wɔ ɔ lɔ wooŋvyaa sɛ ɲiŋ kɔ ɔ nŋdɔ ŋ taŋManding Mandinka kiliŋ fula saba naani luulu wooro worowula sayi kononto taŋManding Xaasonga kilin fula saba naani luulu wooro woorowula saɡi xononto tanMokole Kakabe kelen fila saba naani lɔ ɔlu wɔ ɔrɔ wɔ rɔwila 6 1 saɡin kɔ nɔntɔ tanMokole Kuranko kelen fila sawa saba nani loli wɔrɔ wɔrɔnfila 6 1 seɡin kɔnɔnt tanMokole Lele kelɛŋ fela sawa nani luuli wɔɔrɔ wɔrɔŋ kela 6 1 seŋ kɔnɔndɔ taŋVai Kono Kono ncelen ncele dɔ ndo fea sawa naani duʔu wɔ ɔlɔ wɔ nfea ɔ ɱfea sei sein kɔ nɔ ntɔn tanVai Kono Vai lɔ ndɔ fɛ ʔ a sak pa naani soo ʔ u sɔ ŋ lɔ ndɔ 5 1 sɔ ŋ fɛ ʔ a 5 2 sɔ ŋ sak pa 5 3 sɔ ŋ naani 5 4 taŋSusu Yalunka Susu keren kɛ rɛ firin firĩ saxan saxa naani suli senni sẽni 5 1 solofere 5 2 solomasaxan 5 3 solomanaani 5 4 fuuSusu Yalunka Yalunka 1 kede firiŋ sakaŋ nani sulu seni 5 1 folofɛ rɛ 5 2 folomasakaŋ 5 3 folomanani 5 4 fuSusu Yalunka Yalunka Jalonke 2 keden fidin saxan naani suuli sɛnni 5 1 solofɛdɛ 5 2 solomasɛɡɛ 5 3 solomanaani 5 4 fuuKpelle Guinea Kpelle taaŋ hveelɛ hveelɛ haabǎ haaba naaŋ lɔ ɔ li mɛ i da 5 1 mɛ i hveelɛ 5 2 mɛ i haaba 5 3 mɛ i naaŋ 5 4 poǔKpelle Liberia Kpelle taaŋ tɔnɔ dɔnɔ feerɛ saaɓa naaŋ nɔ ɔlu lɔ ɔlu mɛi da 5 1 mɛi feerɛ 5 2 mɛi saaɓa 5 3 mɛi naaŋ 5 4 puuMende Loma Looma Toma 1 ɡilaɡ fele ɡɔ sawa ɡɔ naanĩ ɡɔ dɔ ɔ lu ɡɔ dozita 5 1 dɔ fela 5 2 dɔ sawa 5 3 tawu ɡɔ 10 1 pu ɡɔ Mende Loma Loma 2 ɡila feleɡɔ saaɡɔ naaɡɔ dooluo dɔzita 5 1 dɔfela 5 2 dɔsava 5 3 taawu 10 1 puuMende Loma Bandi 1 ita ŋ hita ŋ fele ŋ sawa ŋ saa ŋ naani ŋ ndɔ ɔ lu ŋ nɡɔ hita ŋ 5 1 ŋɡɔ fela ŋ 5 2 ŋɡɔ hak pa ŋ ŋɡwahak pa ŋ 5 4 taawu ŋ taavu ŋ 10 1 pu ŋ puu ŋ Mende Loma Bandi 2 iita feele saawa naani ndɔɔ lu nɡɔhita 5 1 nɡɔfela 5 2 nɡwahak pa 5 3 taavu 10 1 puuMende Loma Loko 1 ila ŋ fele ŋ fee ŋ sawa ŋ cawa ŋ naai ŋ ndɔu ŋ ŋɡɔhita 5 1 ŋɡɔfɛla 5 2 ŋɡɔsaak pa karaabu raabu puu ŋ kapuu ŋ Mende Loma Loko 2 ila fele itʃawa naiŋ ndɔu nɡɔita 5 1 nɡɔfla 5 2 nɡɔsaɡ ba 5 3 karabu 10 1 kapuMende Loma Mende yila itaa fele sawa naani lɔ ɔ lu wɔ ita 5 1 wɔ fila 5 2 wayak pa 5 3 taalu 10 1 puuSamogo Duungooma sɔʔi fiʔi ʒiʔi naai nũ tũmɛ ɲɛ ːnũ ŋaai kleːlo ceũSamogo Dzuungoo sōː sōːre fiː fiːki ʒiːɡi naːlẽ nũ tsũ mɛ ɲɛ ːnṹ ŋaːlo kjeːrṍ tsjeuSamogo Jowulu Jo tẽẽna fuuli bʒei pʃɪrɛᶦ taa tamanɪ 5 1 dʒɔ mpʊn 3 4 fulpʊn 2 x 4 tẽmpʊn 5 4 bʒĩĩSamogo Seeku swɛ fĩ ʃwɛ naa nɔ tsii ɲɛ ɛ kaa kuomɛ toSoninke Bobo Konabere talɪ pala sǎ nia kʊ kʊ ta nɪ 5 1 kʊ rʊ para 5 2 kʊ rʊ sɔ ʊ 5 3 kʊ rʊ nɔ ŋ 5 4 m ḿ Soninke Bobo Southern Bobo Madare tele pla saa naa koo konala 5 1 kok pura 5 2 korosɔ 5 3 koronɔ 5 4 fʊ Soninke Bobo Hainyaxo Bozo Kelenga sa na fienu si yu na na kɔ lɔ hɔ tu mi dʒieni sɛ ki kafi ta Soninke Bobo Tiema Ciewe Bozo san a pẽ ːnde si ye na ra kɔ lɔ tu mi dʒienĩ tʃeki kiawi taSoninke Bobo Tieyaxo Bozo Tigemaxo 1 sana fẽ nde si yo kɔ lɔ kɔ lɔ tu mĩ dʒe ni sɛ ki kiawi ta Soninke Bobo Tieyaxo Bozo 2 sanna kuɔn fendeen pendeen siiyon naaran kɔlɔn tuumi jeeni sekiin kiawi tanSoninke Bobo Jenaama Bozo 1 sanːa pẽ ndeː sikɛ ũ nata kɔ ːɡṍ tǔːmi yieni sekːi kapːi tʃɛ miSoninke Bobo Jenaama Bozo 2 sanna pende sikɛũ siɡɛũ nataũ kɔɡo tuumi yeeni seki kapi tʃɛmi tʃamiSoninke Bobo Soninke baane fillo filːi sikko sikːi naɣato naɣati karaɡo karaɡi tṹmu tũmi ɲeru ɲeri seɡu seɡi kabu kabi ta mu tamiSee alsoList of Proto Mande reconstructions Wiktionary List of Proto West Mande reconstructions Wiktionary Manding languages Mande Mende languageReferencesVydrin Valentin 2018 Mande Languages Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199384655 013 397 ISBN 978 0 19 938465 5 Dimmendaal Gerrit J 2008 Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continen t Language and Linguistics Compass 2 5 840 858 doi 10 1111 j 1749 818x 2008 00085 x ISSN 1749 818X Guldemann Tom 2018 Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa In Guldemann Tom ed The Languages and Linguistics of Africa The World of Linguistics Vol 11 Berlin De Gruyter Mouton pp 58 444 doi 10 1515 9783110421668 002 ISBN 978 3 11 042606 9 S2CID 133888593 Overall unless more robust and systematic evidence is brought forward the long standing but vague idea that Mande is distant from the rest of Niger Kordofanian as one of its earliest offshoots should give way to the neutral assessment that it is a family without a proven genealogical affiliation p 192 Vydrin Valentin 2009 On the Problem of the Proto Mande Homeland PDF Journal of Language Relationships pp 107 142 McCall D F 1971 The Cultural Map and Time Profile of the Mande Speaking Peoples In Hodge C T Hodge ed Papers on the Manding Bloomington Indiana University ISBN 9780877501589 Delafosse Maurice 1901 Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mande ou mandingue Institut national de langues et civilisations orientales OCLC 461494818 Welmers William E 1971 Sebeok Thomas A Berry Jade Greenberg Joseph H eds Niger Congo Mande Linguistics in Sub Saharan Africa Current Trends in Linguistics 7 The Hague Mouton 113 140 Dimmendaal Gerrit J 2011 Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African Languages John Benjamins ISBN 978 90 272 8722 9 Vydrin Valentin 2016 Toward a Proto Mande reconstruction and an etymological dictionary PDF Faits de Langues 47 109 123 doi 10 1163 19589514 047 01 900000008 S2CID 56242828 Mande language family mandelang kunstkamera ru Retrieved 2019 03 25 Kastenholz Raimund 1996 Sprachgeschichte im West Mande Methoden und Rekonstruktionen Koln Koppe p 281 ISBN 3896450719 OCLC 42295840 ISBN 0521661781 a href wiki Template Cite book title Template Cite book cite book a Missing or empty title help Bimson Kent 1976 Comparative reconstruction of Mandekan Studies in African Linguistics 7 3 Schreiber Henning 2008 Eine historische Phonologie der Niger Volta Sprachen Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Sprachgeschichte der ostlichen Ost Mandesprachen R Koppe ISBN 978 3 89645 076 0 Vydrin Valentin 2007 South Mande reconstruction Initial consonants Aspekty komparativistiki 2 Orientalia et classica Vol XI Trudy Instituta vostochnyh kultur i antichn Dwyer David J 1988 Towards Proto Mande phonology PDF Mandenkan 14 15 139 152 Archived from the original PDF on 2022 04 09 Chan Eugene 2019 The Niger Congo Language Phylum Numeral Systems of the World s Languages Further readingDelafosse Maurice 1904 Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de soixante langues ou dialectes parles a la Ivory Coast et dans les regions limitrophes avec des notes linguistiques et ethnologiques Paris Leroux Halaoui Nazam Tera Kalilou Trabi Monique 1983 Atlas des langues mande sud de Ivory Coast Abidjan ACCT ILA Perekhvalskaya Elena Vydrin Valentin 2019 Numeral systems in Mande languages PDF Mandenkan 61 47 111 Archived from the original PDF on 2022 04 18 Steinthal Heymann 1867 Die Mande Negersprachen psychologisch und phonetisch betrachtet Berlin Schade Sullivan Terrence D 2004 1983 A preliminary report of existing information on the Manding languages of West Africa Summary and suggestions for future research SIL Electronic Survey Report Dallas SIL International Vydrin Valentin Bergman T G Benjamin Matthew 2000 Mande language family of West Africa Location and genetic classification SIL Electronic Survey Report Dallas SIL International Williamson Kay Blench Roger 2000 Niger Congo In Heine Bernd Nurse Derek eds African Languages An Introduction Cambridge University Press External linksLANGUES MANDE Mande page of the Journal of West African Languages Journal Mandenkan introduction
