In linguistics, word formation is an ambiguous term that can refer to either:
- the processes through which words can change (i.e. morphology), or
- the creation of new lexemes in a particular language
Morphological
A common method of word formation is the attachment of inflectional or derivational affixes.
Derivation
Examples include:
- the words governor, government, governable, misgovern, ex-governor, and ungovernable are all derived from the base word (to) govern
Inflection
Inflection is modifying a word for the purpose of fitting it into the grammatical structure of a sentence. For example:
- manages and managed are inflected from the base word (to) manage
- worked is inflected from the verb (to) work
- talks, talked, and talking are inflected from the base (to) talk
Nonmorphological
Abbreviation
Examples includes:
- etc. from et cetera
Acronyms & Initialisms
An acronym is a word formed from the first letters of other words. For example:
- NASA is the acronym for National Aeronautics and Space Administration
- IJAL (pronounced /aidʒæl/) is the acronym for International Journal of American Linguistics
Acronyms are usually written entirely in capital letters, though some words originating as acronyms, like radar, are now treated as common nouns.
Initialisms are similar to acronyms, but where the letters are pronounced as a series of letters. For example:
- ATM for Automated Teller Machine
- SIA for Singapore International Airlines
Back-formation
In linguistics, back-formation is the process of forming a new word by removing actual affixes, or parts of the word that is re-analyzed as an affix, from other words to create a base. Examples include:
- the verb headhunt is a back-formation of headhunter
- the verb edit is formed from the noun editor
- the word televise is a back-formation of television
The process is motivated by analogy: edit is to editor as act is to actor. This process leads to a lot of denominal verbs.
The productivity of back-formation is limited, with the most productive forms of back-formation being hypocoristics.
Blending
A lexical blend is a complex word typically made of two word fragments. For example:
- smog is a blend of smoke and fog
- brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch.
- stagflation is a blend of stagnation and inflation
- chunnel is a blend of channel and tunnel, referring to the Channel Tunnel
Although blending is listed under the Nonmorphological heading, there are debates as to how far blending is a matter of morphology.
Compounding
Compounding is the processing of combining two bases, where each base may be a fully-fledged word. For example:
- desktop is formed by combining desk and top
- railway is formed by combining rail and way
- firefighter is formed by combining fire and fighter
Compounding is a topic relevant to syntax, semantics, and morphology.
Hashtagging as word formation
Linguists argue that hashtags are words and hashtagging is a morphological process. Social media users view the syntax of existing viral hashtags as guiding principles for creating new ones. A hashtag's popularity is therefore influenced more by the presence of popular hashtags with similar syntactic patterns than by its conciseness and clarity.
Word formation vs. Semantic change
There are processes for forming new dictionary items which are not considered under the umbrella of word formation. One specific example is semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define as a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form.
References
- Bauer, L. (1 January 2006). "Word Formation". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second Edition). Elsevier: 632–633. doi:10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/04235-8. ISBN 9780080448541. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
- Baker, Anne; Hengeveld, Kees (2012). Linguistics. Malden, MA.: John Wiley & Sons. p. 23. ISBN 978-0631230366.
- Katamba, F. (1 January 2006). "Back-Formation". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second Edition): 642–645. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00108-5. ISBN 9780080448541.
- Linguistics : the basics. Anne, July 8- Baker, Kees Hengeveld. Malden, MA.: John Wiley & Sons. 2012. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-631-23035-9. OCLC 748812931.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - Katamba, F. (1 January 2006). "Back-Formation". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second Edition): 642–645. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00108-5. ISBN 9780080448541.
- Aronoff, Mark (1983). "A Decade of Morphology and Word Formation". Annual Review of Anthropology. 12: 360. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.12.100183.002035.
- Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew (2018). An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their Structure (2nd ed.). Edinburgh University Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-4744-2896-5.
- Caleffi, Paola-Maria (2015). "The 'hashtag': A new word or a new rule?" (PDF). Skase Journal of Theoretical Linguistics. 12 (2). ISSN 1336-782X.
- Calude, Andreea S.; Long, Maebh; Burnette, Jessie (2024-06-07). "#AreHashtagsWords? Structure, position, and syntactic integration of hashtags in (English) tweets". Linguistics Vanguard. 10 (1): 105–114. doi:10.1515/lingvan-2023-0044. ISSN 2199-174X.
- Wan, Ming Feng (2024-03-12). "The role of syntax in hashtag popularity". Linguistics Vanguard. 10 (1): 693–698. doi:10.1515/lingvan-2023-0051. ISSN 2199-174X.
See also
In linguistics word formation is an ambiguous term that can refer to either the processes through which words can change i e morphology or the creation of new lexemes in a particular languageMorphologicalA common method of word formation is the attachment of inflectional or derivational affixes Derivation Examples include the words governor government governable misgovern ex governor and ungovernable are all derived from the base word to governInflection Inflection is modifying a word for the purpose of fitting it into the grammatical structure of a sentence For example manages and managed are inflected from the base word to manage worked is inflected from the verb to work talks talked and talking are inflected from the base to talkNonmorphologicalAbbreviation Examples includes etc from et ceteraAcronyms amp Initialisms An acronym is a word formed from the first letters of other words For example NASA is the acronym for National Aeronautics and Space Administration IJAL pronounced aidʒael is the acronym for International Journal of American Linguistics Acronyms are usually written entirely in capital letters though some words originating as acronyms like radar are now treated as common nouns Initialisms are similar to acronyms but where the letters are pronounced as a series of letters For example ATM for Automated Teller Machine SIA for Singapore International AirlinesBack formation In linguistics back formation is the process of forming a new word by removing actual affixes or parts of the word that is re analyzed as an affix from other words to create a base Examples include the verb headhunt is a back formation of headhunter the verb edit is formed from the noun editor the word televise is a back formation of television The process is motivated by analogy edit is to editor as act is to actor This process leads to a lot of denominal verbs The productivity of back formation is limited with the most productive forms of back formation being hypocoristics Blending A lexical blend is a complex word typically made of two word fragments For example smog is a blend of smoke and fog brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch stagflation is a blend of stagnation and inflation chunnel is a blend of channel and tunnel referring to the Channel Tunnel Although blending is listed under the Nonmorphological heading there are debates as to how far blending is a matter of morphology Compounding Compounding is the processing of combining two bases where each base may be a fully fledged word For example desktop is formed by combining desk and top railway is formed by combining rail and way firefighter is formed by combining fire and fighter Compounding is a topic relevant to syntax semantics and morphology Hashtagging as word formationLinguists argue that hashtags are words and hashtagging is a morphological process Social media users view the syntax of existing viral hashtags as guiding principles for creating new ones A hashtag s popularity is therefore influenced more by the presence of popular hashtags with similar syntactic patterns than by its conciseness and clarity Word formation vs Semantic changeThere are processes for forming new dictionary items which are not considered under the umbrella of word formation One specific example is semantic change which is a change in a single word s meaning The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define as a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form ReferencesBauer L 1 January 2006 Word Formation Encyclopedia of Language amp Linguistics Second Edition Elsevier 632 633 doi 10 1016 b0 08 044854 2 04235 8 ISBN 9780080448541 Retrieved 17 December 2021 Baker Anne Hengeveld Kees 2012 Linguistics Malden MA John Wiley amp Sons p 23 ISBN 978 0631230366 Katamba F 1 January 2006 Back Formation Encyclopedia of Language amp Linguistics Second Edition 642 645 doi 10 1016 B0 08 044854 2 00108 5 ISBN 9780080448541 Linguistics the basics Anne July 8 Baker Kees Hengeveld Malden MA John Wiley amp Sons 2012 p 217 ISBN 978 0 631 23035 9 OCLC 748812931 a href wiki Template Cite book title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Katamba F 1 January 2006 Back Formation Encyclopedia of Language amp Linguistics Second Edition 642 645 doi 10 1016 B0 08 044854 2 00108 5 ISBN 9780080448541 Aronoff Mark 1983 A Decade of Morphology and Word Formation Annual Review of Anthropology 12 360 doi 10 1146 annurev an 12 100183 002035 Carstairs McCarthy Andrew 2018 An Introduction to English Morphology Words and Their Structure 2nd ed Edinburgh University Press p 71 ISBN 978 1 4744 2896 5 Caleffi Paola Maria 2015 The hashtag A new word or a new rule PDF Skase Journal of Theoretical Linguistics 12 2 ISSN 1336 782X Calude Andreea S Long Maebh Burnette Jessie 2024 06 07 AreHashtagsWords Structure position and syntactic integration of hashtags in English tweets Linguistics Vanguard 10 1 105 114 doi 10 1515 lingvan 2023 0044 ISSN 2199 174X Wan Ming Feng 2024 03 12 The role of syntax in hashtag popularity Linguistics Vanguard 10 1 693 698 doi 10 1515 lingvan 2023 0051 ISSN 2199 174X See alsoNeologism
