Well-being is what is ultimately good for a person. Also called welfare and quality of life, it is a measure of how well life is going for someone. It is a central goal of many individual and societal endeavors.
Subjective well-being refers to how a person feels about and evaluates their life. Objective well-being encompasses factors that can be assessed from an external perspective, such as health, income, and security. Individual well-being concerns the quality of life of a particular person, whereas community well-being measures how well a group of people functions and thrives. Various types of well-being are categorized based on the domain of life to which they belong, such as physical, psychological, emotional, social, and economic well-being.
Theories of well-being aim to identify the essential features of well-being. Hedonism argues that the balance of pleasure over pain is the only factor. Desire theories assert that the satisfaction of desires is the sole source of well-being. According to objective list theories, a combination of diverse elements is responsible. Often-discussed contributing factors include feelings, emotions, life satisfaction, achievement, finding meaning, interpersonal relationships, and health.
Well-being is relevant to many fields of inquiry. Positive psychology studies the factors and conditions of optimal human functioning. Philosophy examines the nature and theoretical foundations of well-being and its role as a goal of human conduct. Other related disciplines include economics, sociology, anthropology, medicine, education, politics, and religion. Even though the philosophical study of well-being dates back millennia, research in the empirical sciences has only intensified since the second half of the 20th century.
Definition
Well-being is what is ultimately good for a person or in their self-interest. It is a measure of how well a person's life is going for them. In the broadest sense, the term covers the whole spectrum of quality of life as the balance of all positive and negative things in a person's life. More narrowly, well-being refers specifically to positive degrees, while ill-being denotes negative degrees. The precise definition of well-being is disputed and varies across disciplines and cultures. Some characterizations focus on a single element, like happiness, while others include multiple components, such as good physical and mental health, positive emotions, an engaged and flourishing lifestyle, inner harmony, and positive interpersonal relationships. Some definitions also include material conditions, such as income, safety, and low pollution. Although discussions of well-being usually focus on humans, the term also covers other animals in its widest sense.
As a person-specificvalue, well-being contrasts with impersonal value or value simpliciter. A thing has impersonal value if it is good for the world at large by making it a better place, without being restricted to one specific person. Well-being, by contrast, is what is good for or relative to someone. While personal and impersonal values often align, they can diverge, for example, if an individual seeks a personal gain that is bad from a wider perspective. The exact relation between these two types of value is disputed. According to one proposal, impersonal value is the sum of all personal values.
Well-being is typically understood as an intrinsic or final value, meaning that it is good in itself, independent of external factors. Things with instrumental value, by contrast, are only good as means leading to other good things, like the value of money. Well-being is further distinguished from moral, religious, and aesthetic values. For instance, donating money to a charity may be morally good, even if it does not increase the donor's well-being.
The terms quality of life, good life, welfare, prudential value, personal good, and individual utility are often used as synonyms of well-being. Similarly, the words pleasure, life satisfaction, and happiness are employed in overlapping ways with well-being, although their precise meanings differ in technical contexts like philosophy and psychology. Pleasure refers to individual feelings about what is attractive.Life satisfaction is a positive attitude a person has towards their life as a whole. Happiness is sometimes identified with life satisfaction or understood as a positive balance of pleasure over pain.
Well-being is a crucial goal of many human endeavors, both on individual and societal levels. Various attitudes and emotions are directed at well-being, like caring for someone or experiencing pity, envy, and ill will. Well-being is the state that egoists seek for themselves and altruists aim to increase for others. Many disciplines examine or are guided by considerations of well-being, including ethics, psychology, sociology, economics, education, public policy, law, and medicine. The word well-being comes from the Italian term benessere. It entered the English language in the 16th century.
Types
Types of well-being can be categorized by how they are measured, who they belong to, and which domain of life they affect. Some researchers limit their inquiry to one specific type while others investigate the interrelations between different types.
Subjective and objective well-being
Subjective well-being is the measure of how people feel about and evaluate their own lives. It encompasses both affective and cognitive components. A person has high affective well-being if they have many pleasant experiences and few unpleasant ones. High cognitive well-being occurs when a person evaluates their life positively, making a global assessment that things are going well.
Subjective well-being is measured using questionnaires in which individuals report the quality of their experiences. Single-item measures provide the most simple approach, focusing on a single scale, like asking participants to rate how content they are with their lives on a scale from 1 to 10. Multi-item scales include questions for distinct aspects of subjective well-being, with the advantage of reducing the influence of the wording of any single question. They have separate questions for domains such as the presence of positive affects, the absence of negative affects, and overall life satisfaction, which they combine into a comprehensive index.
Objective well-being encompasses objective factors that a person's life is going well. Unlike subjective well-being, these factors can be assessed and quantified from an external perspective. They include personal, social, economic, and environmental aspects such as health, education, income, housing, leisure, and security.
By relying on objective data, measures of objective well-being are less affected by cultural and personal biases influencing self-reports. However, it is not universally accepted that objective well-being is a form of well-being in the strictest sense. This doubt is based on the idea that well-being is essentially a subjective phenomenon tied to a person's experience. According to this view, objective factors influence and indicate well-being but are not themselves forms of well-being.
Some inquiries focus only on subjective or objective well-being. Others combine both perspectives in their investigation, including questions about how the two are related. It is possible for subjective and objective well-being to diverge. For example, a person may feel subjectively happy despite scoring low on objective measures, like low income and frail health.
Individual and community well-being
Individual well-being concerns the quality of life of a particular person and is the main focus of disciplines like psychology and philosophy. Community well-being applies the concept of well-being to the state of a group of people. It encompasses a broad range of economic, social, environmental, and cultural aspects that influence how the community functions and thrives while ensuring that the community's needs are fulfilled.
One view sees community well-being as the sum of individual well-beings while others emphasize that the relation between the two is more complex. Individual and community well-being often support each other. For instance, high individual well-being can lead a person to contribute more to their community, and a well-functioning community can make its members happy. However, there can also be tensions, like when changes necessary for community well-being conflict with the individual well-being of certain members.
Closely related to community well-being are categories of well-being defined for specific demographic groups. For instance, child well-being emphasizes health, education, material security, and social development in a loving and nurturing environment. Other examples include women’s, elderly, student, and employee well-being.
Other types
Various types of well-being are categorized based on the domain of life to which they belong. Physical well-being concerns the domain of the body as the capacity to engage in physical activities and the absence of illness and bodily pain. It includes general health considerations and the ability to perform one's social role without being hindered by physical limitations.
Psychological well-being, also called mental health, is a state of mind characterized by internal balance. It involves the absence of disorders and disturbances, together with the abilities to cope with challenging situations, maintain positive relationships, and cultivate personal growth. It is closely linked to intellectual, spiritual, and emotional well-being. Intellectual well-being encompasses well-functioning cognitive abilities and traits, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and curiosity. Spiritual well-being is a state in which people find purpose in life and have inner peace, self-confidence, and a sense of identity. Emotional well-being involves the capacities to comprehend, articulate, and regulate emotions, together with an overall positive mood.
Hedonic well-being refers to a life rich in pleasurable experiences and devoid of suffering. Eudamonic well-being is a form of personal fulfillment in which an individual flourishes by striving for excellence and actualizing their innate potentials.
Social well-being concerns the quality and number of interpersonal connections, including how well a person functions in their social environment and the level of social support available to them. Economic well-being refers to the economic situation of a person, such as the resources and skills they have in regard to income, job opportunities, and financial stability. Further types of well-being include financial, cultural, political, and environmental well-being.
Theories of well-being
Theories of well-being aim to identify the essential features or components of well-being. They focus on the nature of well-being itself rather than its external causes or conventional indicators used to measure it. For example, money and medicine can contribute to well-being as external causes but are not themselves forms of well-being. A traditionally influential approach categorizes theories of well-being into hedonism, desire theories, and objective list theories. This classification does not cover all theories, and the different categories are not always mutually exclusive. In some cases, distinct theories recommend different lifestyles, while in others, they advocate for the same lifestyle but provide different reasons for why it is good.
Hedonism
Hedonism about well-being, also called prudential hedonism, holds that pleasure and pain are the only factors of well-being. It states that how well a life goes for a person depends entirely on how it feels to live this life, expressed as the balance of pleasure over pain. One view sees pleasure and pain as bodily sensations, like the pleasure of eating delicious food and the pain of injuring a leg. However, hedonists generally take a wider perspective, characterizing pleasure and pain broadly as any experience that feels good or bad. This broader understanding includes the intellectual pleasure of reading an engaging book and the sorrow of losing a loved one. According to a common view, the value of each episode of pleasure and pain depends only on its intensity and duration. An alternative perspective also considers non-quantitative factors, such as the distinct quality of an experience.
One criticism of hedonism acknowledges that some pleasures have value but rejects that this is the case for all pleasures. According to this view, certain pleasures have no value and may even be bad for a person, such as sadistic pleasures from torturing animals. Another objection questions whether pleasure is the only thing of value for individuals, citing things like virtue, achievement, friendship, and the satisfaction of desires as distinct sources. An influential counterexample to hedonism, proposed by philosopher Robert Nozick (1938–2002), imagines an experience machine that simulates a life filled with pleasures, which would be ideal from the perspective of hedonism. Pointing out that life in this virtual simulation lacks authenticity, Nozick argues that mere pleasure by itself is not the only source of value.
Desire theories
According to desire theories, the satisfaction of desires is the only source of well-being. This means that individuals have well-being when they get what they want. Desires are subjective attitudes directed at things or states, like the desires to eat potato chips or become famous. Desires present conditions that are either fulfilled or frustrated depending on whether the desired state of affairs is actualized. Desire theories have some overlap with hedonism because people desire pleasure and the satisfaction of desires is typically pleasurable. However, people want various other goods besides pleasure, and desire theorists emphasize the diversity of desires and the individual differences from one person to another. For instance, some people prioritize family and health, while others primarily seek career success, wealth, knowledge, or spiritual enlightenment. As a result, the concrete path to well-being can vary greatly from person to person based on their subjective preferences.
Critics of desire theories point out that people sometimes desire things that are bad for them. For example, a child's desire to eat nothing but candy could lead to serious health problems and diminish well-being rather than increase it. In response, some modified versions of desire theories have been proposed to avoid this counterexample. They argue that only the satisfaction of well-informed desires contributes to well-being, excluding desires in which individuals do not fully consider or understand the negative consequences. Another objection holds that desire satisfaction is only good in a derivative sense. It asserts that a person desires something because they believe that it is good, meaning that the value primarily resides in the desired object rather than in the satisfaction of the desire.
Objective list theories
Objective list theories state that a person's well-being depends on several different factors. These factors can include subjective components, like pleasure and desire-satisfaction, but also encompass objective factors that enhance a person's well-being independent of whether they subjectively care about them. Objective list theorists have proposed diverse lists of items to cover a wide variety of elements contributing to well-being, such as health, friendship, achievement, knowledge, and autonomy. Some versions argue that each element on the list is valuable by itself, while others hold that they complement each other and only promote well-being when combined.
One criticism of objective list theories asserts that they define an incoherent concept of well-being by including diverse elements that have little in common. Another objection challenges the proposed objectivity of objective list theories, arguing that well-being is essentially a subjective phenomenon. According to this view, what is good for a person depends on their subjective attitude, and imposing an external definition of what is good leads to alienation.
Others
One categorization distinguishes between subjectivist, objectivist, and hybrid theories. Subjectivist theories understand well-being as a purely subjective phenomenon characterized by the individual's own perspective, mental states, and attitudes. Objectivist theories rely only on objective factors in their definition, like health and achievement. Hybrid theories incorporate both subjective and objective components. For example, one version states that well-being consists in the subjective appreciation of objective goods.
A further distinction is between monist and pluralist theories. Monist theories hold that a single good is responsible for well-being, meaning that all types of well-being share the same essential features. Pluralist theories see well-being as a diverse phenomenon that manifests in many forms without a single essence characteristic of all of them. For instance, objective list theories are pluralist views, whereas hedonism and desire theories are monist views.
Perfectionism identifies well-being with excellence by fulfilling human nature. Perfectionists discern key human abilities, such as rationality, knowledge, health, and dignity, holding that mastering and exercising them results in a life well lived. As an objectivist perspective, perfectionism asserts that the value of these goods does not depend on what the person thinks about them.Eudaimonism is a closely related view, asserting that a person has high well-being or flourishes in life by actualizing their inborn potentials. This view emphasizes that well-being is not a passive state but an active process. It manifests in an engaged lifestyle where individuals exercise virtues and rely on practical rationality to guide their decision-making.
Value fulfillment theories see the fulfillment of evaluative attitudes as the basis of well-being. They are similar to desire theories but are not limited to desires and include other evaluative attitudes such as beliefs, feelings, and judgments about what is good.
Most theories assume that the definition of well-being applies equally to everyone. Variabilism rejects this assumption and argues that different conceptions of well-being apply to different individuals. For example, one form of variabilism asserts that the nature of well-being in children differs from that in adults. Similarly, some theories of well-being are species-relative, proposing that the essential features of well-being vary across distinct species.
Components and contributing factors
To avoid the deep disagreements surrounding the essential features of well-being, some researchers examine components and contributing factors independent of whether they are integral parts or external causes. For example, there is wide agreement that positive emotions, achievements, interpersonal relationships, and health typically contribute to well-being in some form, despite academic disagreements about their precise roles.
Feelings, emotions, and life satisfaction
Positive and negative feelings of pleasure and pain are basic experiences of what is attractive and aversive. Pleasures promote well-being while pains diminish it. Additionally, they also influence how individuals perceive their lives and interact with their social and physical environments. Pleasure and pain are commonly seen as symmetric phenomena that counterbalance each other. According to this view, the disvalue of an episode of intense pain can be annulled by the value of an episode of intense pleasure. A different perspective argues that their relation is more complex, asserting that pleasure and pain influence experience, motivation, and well-being in distinct ways. As a result, one view holds that avoiding pain is more important than seeking pleasure.
Emotions include subjective experiences of pleasure and pain but are more complex psychological phenomena that encompass various additional aspects. They are temporary states of arousal and include an evaluative assessment of a situation and a disposition to engage in certain types of behavior. For example, fear evaluates a situation as dangerous and is associated with a behavioral disposition to flee. Additionally, emotions are associated with physiological changes, like sweating, and bodily expressions that signal the emotional state to others. High well-being is associated with frequent positive emotions and infrequent negative ones.Moods are a closely related factor of well-being. They typically last longer than emotions and have a less specific origin and evaluative assessment.
Life satisfaction is the subjective judgment of a person about how well their life is going. As an evaluation of a person's life as a whole, it is not limited to one particular area, like employment or financial status. Even though life satisfaction is influenced by the feelings and emotions a person currently has, it is not limited to them and encompasses a broader perspective. For example, a person may be overall satisfied with their life even if they are experiencing intense stomach pain at the moment. Individuals vary in how they arrive at their judgment of life satisfaction. For instance, some rely on instinctive gut feelings while others engage in deliberate and systematic reflections. Sometimes, individuals make inaccurate assessments and deceive themselves about their true quality of life, like cases of false happiness.
Achievements and meaning
Achievements or accomplishments refer to various types of success in life. They usually involve sustained effort in which an individual sets a goal they consider valuable and strives to actualize it. Achievements take many forms such as earning an educational degree, attaining athletic success, contributing to scientific research, writing a well-received novel, starting a successful company, and bringing up a happy family. The contribution of achievements to well-being depends not only on their quantity but also on their significance. For example, a difficult achievement that helps many people, like finding a cure for cancer, may contribute more to the achiever's well-being than a trivial and pointless achievement, like determining the exact number of crumbs in a cookie jar. High achievement typically has a positive influence on other factors of well-being. For example, it can help a person make more friends and improve their standard of living. In some cases, however, it can have negative side effects, like when an obsession with success increases anxiety and alienates loved ones.
Finding purpose or meaning in life is a closely related factor of well-being. It involves a judgment about the role and value of one's life in a wider context, but its precise characterization is disputed. Subjectivists argue that meaning is a subjective phenomenon. They suggest that people actively create it and make their lives meaningful by dedicating themselves to what they love. Objectivists contend that meaning is an objective phenomenon achieved by engaging with concrete values, like truth, moral goodness, and beauty. Some objectivists seek meaning in religious practice, arguing that a supernatural purpose is the source of meaning for individuals who work towards its realization. Other suggested sources of meaning include altruism, creativity, and self-actualization. The inability to find meaning in life can lead to an existential crisis, associated with anxiety and spiritual confusion.
Friendship and other relationships
Positive social connections and interactions are further key elements of well-being. In addition to the intrinsic joy of engaging with others, social networks can offer material and emotional assistance during challenging times. They also help people build trust, share values, promote the exchange of information, and provide access to new opportunities. Different types of social relationships may influence well-being in different ways, such as the contrasts between friends, family members, romantic partners, co-workers, and teammates.
Researchers often focus specifically on friendship, understood as a voluntary social relationship between people characterized by mutual concern, trust, and support. Friends tend to spend time with each other, enjoy each other's company, and know personal facts about one another. A central aspect of a friendship is its strength, distinguishing close friends from distant ones. Strength is determined by factors such as time spent together, trust, emotional intensity, and readiness to support each other in difficult times. The number of friends a person has is another relevant factor, and having many friends is usually beneficial. However, if a person already has numerous friends, making even more friends may not significantly impact their well-being. Some people prefer large friend networks with looser connections, while others have few but strong friendships.
Health and disabilities
Health is the overall condition in which an organism functions as it should, both physically and mentally. Good physical health is associated with high energy and the ability to perform everyday activities. Physical illnesses and disabilities can negatively impact well-being by causing pain, limiting mobility, and reducing the capacity to engage in enjoyable or necessary activities. Good mental health is a state of internal equilibrium in which mental capacities work the way they should. Mental disorders are associated with some form of cognitive impairment. They typically disrupt the equilibrium by causing some form of distress and can also limit the activities a person can engage in.Discrimination can amplify the negative effects of socially stigmatized illnesses and disabilities.
Despite its general impact, health does not determine well-being and some individuals affected by severe illnesses and disabilities report high levels of subjective well-being. The availability of healthcare services can mitigate negative effects by providing treatments to restore health or manage and alleviate symptoms. Similarly, adopting a healthy lifestyle, like regular physical activity and a balanced diet, is associated with long-term benefits to well-being.
Other components
Knowledge is a cognitive success through which people stand in contact with reality. As such, it impacts well-being in various ways by influencing how people think, feel, and act. Knowledge assists in making good decisions, achieving positive outcomes, and avoiding negative ones. For example, knowledge of traffic rules helps prevent accidents and knowledge of a disease can aid in its treatment. However, it is controversial whether all types of knowledge contribute to well-being. For example, knowing unimportant facts, such as the exact number of blades of grass in one's backyard, may have no real benefits. Practically relevant knowledge about oneself and deep insights into general truths of the world, by contrast, typically have a more substantial impact on well-being.
In addition to knowledge, many related epistemic goods contribute to well-being, such as intelligence, problem-solving skills, creativity, open-mindedness, understanding, and wisdom. The value of epistemic goods is reflected in the emphasis given to education to foster the development of the minds of students.
Autonomy and freedom are often-discussed factors of well-being. They concern the possibility to choose, the ability to make informed decisions without coercion, and the capacity to act without being constrained by external forces. Individuals with a high level of autonomy and freedom tend to be more satisfied by having control over their lives. This enables them to decide between important options and choose a life that reflects their desires, preferences, and values. However, these conditions may not automatically lead to well-being and can sometimes have negative consequences. For example, a person lacking mental maturity and wisdom may freely engage in short-sighted egoism while ignoring negative long-term outcomes.
Eudaimonic conceptions of well-being stress the importance of character traits and virtues. Character traits are stable and consistent aspects of personality that influence how people think, feel, and act. Traits associated with well-being include wisdom, courage, kindness, justice, temperance, and gratitude. Virtues are character traits that promote ethical excellence, serving as dispositions to act morally. Virtue-based theories of well-being argue that virtue can be its own reward, for example, because living a morally upright life can be a fulfilling experience. However, virtue and well-being may also conflict, for instance, when altruistic service to a greater good requires personal sacrifice.
Various social factors influence well-being, such as income, quality of work, work-life balance, personal security, and schooling. Similarly, the physical environment plays a role, with factors like housing conditions, pollution, noise, and access to nature and recreational areas. Relevant factors on the biological level include genetic makeup, age, neurotransmitters, and hormones.
Models
Models of well-being are frameworks to understand and measure well-being by clarifying its concept and components. Psychologist Ed Diener's (1946–2021) tripartite model identifies three essential components of subjective well-being: the presence of positive affects, the absence of negative affects, and a positive evaluation of one's life as a whole. Psychologist Carol Ryff (1950–present) proposed the six-factor model of psychological well-being. It states that the main elements are self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy, and positive relations with others. Focusing on social well-being, sociologist Corey Keyes developed a five-component model based on social integration, social contribution, social coherence, social actualization, and social acceptance.
Psychologist Martin Seligman (1942–present) articulated the PERMA theory as a model of well-being in general. Its five elements are positive emotions, engagement by following one's interests, interpersonal relationships, finding meaning in life, and accomplishments in the pursuit of success and mastery. Psychologist Michael Bishop developed the network model of well-being, which includes components such as feelings, emotions, attitudes, traits, and interactions with one's environment. This model emphasizes that the different components form a causal network by influencing and reinforcing each other in complex ways.
In various fields
Well-being is relevant to many fields of inquiry as a central phenomenon of human life. Grouped under the umbrella term science of well-being, some disciplines investigate the nature and components of well-being directly. Others study its causes and effects in specific domains of life, such as physical and mental health, social relationships, altruism, tolerance, income, and productivity.
A central motivation of academic inquiry is the belief that well-being can be improved through appropriate measures. Some of these measures focus on individual lifestyle changes. Others take the form of societal interventions to alter how economic, medical, educational, workplace, and political institutions function.
The study of well-being has a long history. Many of the main schools of thought originated in ancient philosophy, including hedonism, eudaimonism, and perfectionism. In the medieval period, philosophers built on and explored these ideas from a religious perspective. In the modern and contemporary eras, the approach became more secular and empirical. Philosophers have examined the relation between well-being and morality and analyzed its conceptual framework. Although philosophical research on well-being dates back millennia, interest in the topic within the empirical sciences has only intensified since the second half of the 20th century. Earlier work in the social and biomedical sciences focused more on identifying, treating, and preventing negative outcomes rather than exploring and promoting factors of positive functioning. This shift in focus led to the emergence of positive psychology. At the same time, fields like economics, sociology, and anthropology began using their distinct methodologies to explore the causes, indicators, and effects of well-being.
Positive psychology
Positive psychology is the branch of psychology dedicated to the study of well-being and related phenomena, like happiness and flourishing. It examines the factors and conditions of optimal human functioning. This inquiry focuses both on individual factors, like the experience of pleasure and pain and the role of character traits, and on societal factors, such as the way social institutions influence human well-being.
On the affective level, positive psychologists examine the different types of positive emotions, such as joy, amusement, serenity, and love. They identify distinct components associated with mental evaluations, physiological changes, facial expressions, experience, and action tendencies. Investigated topics include the conditions under which positive emotions arise, how they contribute to overall well-being, and how they differ from negative emotions.
On the cognitive level, positive psychology studies how intelligence, wisdom, and creativity improve quality of life. It further explores the relation between cognitive and affective processes, for example, how cognitive interpretations evoke emotions and how emotions prompt thought processes.
Another central subfield concerns the role of personality, in particular, how individuals differ regarding personality traits and how these traits impact well-being. The VIA model, an influential framework in positive psychology, analyzes personality based on six main virtues: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. A closely related topic focuses on the role of the self, which encompasses the way a person conceptualizes and imagines themselves. Important factors for well-being are self-esteem, or how a person evaluates themselves, and authenticity, or the degree to which a person's behavior is subjectively consistent with their sense of self.
A further area explores the role of social and physical circumstances. This includes the effects of trust and cooperation on group well-being and dilemmas in which self-interest conflicts with group interest. Having close relationships and engaging in altruistic behavior are generally beneficial to a person's well-being.
In addition to the study of the different components and causes of well-being, positive psychologists also seek to understand how well-being changes over time. They are especially interested in the effects of major negative events, like the death of a child or bankruptcy, and aim to discern the psychological features that help people maintain their level of well-being, like self-regulation and an optimistic outlook.
Philosophy
Philosophy examines the nature, function, and theoretical foundations of well-being. Philosophers explore its essential features by developing and comparing theories of well-being, such as hedonistic theories, desire theories, and objective list theories. They also investigate the foundational principles of the scientific study of well-being. Considering that well-being has both subjective and evaluative aspects, they seek to determine whether scientific objectivity is possible and to what extent well-being can be quantified and compared between individuals.
Some philosophers challenge the concept of well-being, understood as what is ultimately good for someone. For instance, philosopher G. E. Moore (1873–1958) rejects the idea that something can be good relative to a person, asserting instead that all values are impersonal. Another criticism suggests that the concept of well-being is incoherent, arguing that it groups together diverse elements without a shared essence.
Despite these criticisms, well-being plays a central role in ethics and value theory. Welfarism is the view that well-being is the only basic source of value. It holds that everything else, like intelligence and health care, is only valuable to the extent that it promotes well-being and reduces ill-being. Pure welfarists argue that the raw sum of everyone's well-being is all that matters. Impure welfarists consider additional factors, such as ensuring that well-being is distributed equally among people. This modification aims to avoid situations in which some people have abundantly good lives at the expense of others who experience severe deprivation.
Another topic concerns the relation between moral virtue and well-being. According to one view, the two always accompany each other, meaning it is in everyone's self-interest to act virtuously. An alternative perspective denies this close connection, stating that, at least in some cases, a virtuous person has to compromise their own well-being for the greater good. Philosophers further explore the relation between well-being and death. One position questions the common-sense idea that death is generally bad for a person. It argues that since death marks the end of a person's existence, there is nothing that can benefit or harm the person anymore.Animal ethicists apply the concept of well-being to non-human animals, examining what animal well-being consists in and how it affects the moral obligations of humans toward non-human animals.
Other fields
Welfare economics studies the influence of economic activity on well-being. One of its primary goals is to develop standards for evaluating and choosing between competing policy proposals based on their potential benefit to well-being. This field uses metrics such as distribution of income, gross domestic product, consumer surplus, and compensating variation. For example, distributing income more equally is usually beneficial for well-being but needs to be balanced against potential negative side effects, such as a decline in productivity. The economics of happiness, a closely related field, focuses specifically on the connection between economic phenomena and individual happiness. One of its findings is the Easterlin paradox: within a given country, people with higher income tend to be happier than those with lower income, yet overall happiness does not trend upward as the average income of everyone increases.
The growing academic interest in well-being is also reflected in the political sphere, challenging the gross domestic product as the main indicator of national success. As a result, indices to track, compare, and promote the well-being of populations and related phenomena have been established at both national and international levels. Examples are Bhutan's Gross National Happiness, the UK Measures of National Well-being, and the World Happiness Report. Following this trend, policymakers are increasingly relying on well-being metrics and related factors to inform their decision-making processes. It also affects the field of law, where considerations about how to protect and promote well-being can influence legislation.
Well-being is also a topic in various biological sciences with a focus on the biological factors influencing the well-being. Research from twin studies suggests that genetic composition is one of the most impactful factors. Other biological factors include neurotransmitters and hormones that impact positive feelings such as endorphin, dopamine, serotonin, oxytocin, and cortisol. In neuroscience, researchers try to uncover the neural correlates of well-being using neuroimaging techniques.
The problem of well-being plays a central role in medicine since medical interventions typically aim to restore, secure, and enhance patient well-being. Considerations of well-being also affect the treatment of incurable diseases, like Parkinson's disease. In such cases, therapies aim to minimize negative effects, helping patients lead productive and fulfilling lives despite their illness. However, well-being is not the only consideration governing medical interventions and the commitment to patient autonomy is another core principle. This can lead to conflicts when patients act against their self-interest and reject treatments that would improve their well-being.
Sociologists examine the relation between well-being and social phenomena, such as race, socioeconomic status, and education. They use both subjective and objective metrics, with some studies dedicated to well-being in general, while others focus on specific domains, such as work, family, and housing, or on particular demographic groups, such as employees or the elderly.
Anthropologists are interested in the concept of well-being in different cultures. They seek to understand what people at different times and places associate with a good life, such as the culture-specific norms, values, and practices for achieving personal well-being. A key assumption in this field is that the concept of well-being involves a commitment to what is desirable and an evaluative framework for guiding behavior and assessing lifestyles. Anthropologists compare these commitments and frameworks across different cultures, like the differences between Western and non-Western conceptions of well-being. They describe the similarities and differences, typically without taking a position on which view is superior.
Diverse perspectives on well-being are also found in religious and other traditional belief systems, where well-being often serves as a goal of spiritual practice. In various traditional forms of Hinduism, the highest kind of well-being is not determined by objective external conditions. Instead, it depends primarily on experiential knowledge of the self, brought about through practices like self-inquiry and meditation.Buddhism identifies suffering as a central aspect of all existence. It aims to produce well-being by eliminating the causes of suffering, such as desire and ignorance, achieved through the practice of Buddhist virtues, like compassion, loving-kindness, and equanimity. From the perspective of Confucianism, well-being consists in virtuous activity as a process leading to sagehood. According to Taoism, a life high in well-being is characterized by effortless action that is in harmony with nature and guided by spontaneous dispositions. The Christian tradition holds that the personal connection to God is a central factor of well-being, which may manifest in virtuous activity or contemplation of God. According to the teachings of Islam, well-being is achieved by dedicating one's life as much as possible to worshiping Allah and fulfilling His will, as expressed in the Quran.
See also
- Gross National Well-being
- Lived experience
- Prosperity
- Welfare spending
- Workplace wellness
References
Notes
- In slightly different sense, the term is also used to talk about the state of a group of people.
- Pleasure, life satisfaction, and happiness are central to the subjective side of well-being, and some theories assert that they are the only components of well-being.
- In a slightly different sense, the term is also used as a synonym for subjective well-being.
- There are various alternative definitions of emotional well-being and it is sometimes used as an umbrella term including many other types of well-being.
- As a technical term, hedonism describes a respectable philosophical position. It contrasts with the negative meaning of the term found in everyday language, denoting an egoistic lifestyle seeking short-term gratification.
- To quantify the amount of pleasure contained in an experience, the term hedon is sometimes used.
- Some versions of desire theories are only interested in whether a desire is objectively fulfilled or not, independent of whether the person subjectively knows about it. According to others, fulfilled desires are only valuable if the person believes that they are fulfilled.
- Although these elements are characteristic of most emotions, the precise definition of emotions is disputed and some emotions lack certain elements.
- These categories are not exclusive. For example, a co-worker can be a friend at the same time.
- Some theorists distinguish different types of friendship, arguing that they do not contribute to well-being in the same way. For example, a friendship based on the enjoyment of each other's company is different from one based on achieving a common goal. An influential characterization by Aristotle holds that in the highest form of friendship, each friend cares about the other for the other's own sake.
- The exact definitions of these terms are disputed.
- The topic of quantification also concerns problems of aggregation, like the questions of how individual components of well-being determine overall well-being, how the well-being of individuals is related to group well-being, and how well-being at different moments is combined into well-being over extended periods.
- Some definitions are limited to the well-being of humans while others take the well-being of all sentient creatures into account.
- A closely related discussion is between atomists and holists about well-being. Their disagreements touch on questions like whether momentary well-being is more basic than well-being over extended periods of time and whether the temporal order of episodes of well-being matters.
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External links
Well being is what is ultimately good for a person Also called welfare and quality of life it is a measure of how well life is going for someone It is a central goal of many individual and societal endeavors Positive interpersonal relationships contribute to well being Subjective well being refers to how a person feels about and evaluates their life Objective well being encompasses factors that can be assessed from an external perspective such as health income and security Individual well being concerns the quality of life of a particular person whereas community well being measures how well a group of people functions and thrives Various types of well being are categorized based on the domain of life to which they belong such as physical psychological emotional social and economic well being Theories of well being aim to identify the essential features of well being Hedonism argues that the balance of pleasure over pain is the only factor Desire theories assert that the satisfaction of desires is the sole source of well being According to objective list theories a combination of diverse elements is responsible Often discussed contributing factors include feelings emotions life satisfaction achievement finding meaning interpersonal relationships and health Well being is relevant to many fields of inquiry Positive psychology studies the factors and conditions of optimal human functioning Philosophy examines the nature and theoretical foundations of well being and its role as a goal of human conduct Other related disciplines include economics sociology anthropology medicine education politics and religion Even though the philosophical study of well being dates back millennia research in the empirical sciences has only intensified since the second half of the 20th century DefinitionWell being is what is ultimately good for a person or in their self interest It is a measure of how well a person s life is going for them In the broadest sense the term covers the whole spectrum of quality of life as the balance of all positive and negative things in a person s life More narrowly well being refers specifically to positive degrees while ill being denotes negative degrees The precise definition of well being is disputed and varies across disciplines and cultures Some characterizations focus on a single element like happiness while others include multiple components such as good physical and mental health positive emotions an engaged and flourishing lifestyle inner harmony and positive interpersonal relationships Some definitions also include material conditions such as income safety and low pollution Although discussions of well being usually focus on humans the term also covers other animals in its widest sense As a person specificvalue well being contrasts with impersonal value or value simpliciter A thing has impersonal value if it is good for the world at large by making it a better place without being restricted to one specific person Well being by contrast is what is good for or relative to someone While personal and impersonal values often align they can diverge for example if an individual seeks a personal gain that is bad from a wider perspective The exact relation between these two types of value is disputed According to one proposal impersonal value is the sum of all personal values Well being is typically understood as an intrinsic or final value meaning that it is good in itself independent of external factors Things with instrumental value by contrast are only good as means leading to other good things like the value of money Well being is further distinguished from moral religious and aesthetic values For instance donating money to a charity may be morally good even if it does not increase the donor s well being The terms quality of life good life welfare prudential value personal good and individual utility are often used as synonyms of well being Similarly the words pleasure life satisfaction and happiness are employed in overlapping ways with well being although their precise meanings differ in technical contexts like philosophy and psychology Pleasure refers to individual feelings about what is attractive Life satisfaction is a positive attitude a person has towards their life as a whole Happiness is sometimes identified with life satisfaction or understood as a positive balance of pleasure over pain Well being is a crucial goal of many human endeavors both on individual and societal levels Various attitudes and emotions are directed at well being like caring for someone or experiencing pity envy and ill will Well being is the state that egoists seek for themselves and altruists aim to increase for others Many disciplines examine or are guided by considerations of well being including ethics psychology sociology economics education public policy law and medicine The word well being comes from the Italian term benessere It entered the English language in the 16th century TypesTypes of well being can be categorized by how they are measured who they belong to and which domain of life they affect Some researchers limit their inquiry to one specific type while others investigate the interrelations between different types Subjective and objective well being Subjective well being is the measure of how people feel about and evaluate their own lives It encompasses both affective and cognitive components A person has high affective well being if they have many pleasant experiences and few unpleasant ones High cognitive well being occurs when a person evaluates their life positively making a global assessment that things are going well Subjective well being is measured using questionnaires in which individuals report the quality of their experiences Single item measures provide the most simple approach focusing on a single scale like asking participants to rate how content they are with their lives on a scale from 1 to 10 Multi item scales include questions for distinct aspects of subjective well being with the advantage of reducing the influence of the wording of any single question They have separate questions for domains such as the presence of positive affects the absence of negative affects and overall life satisfaction which they combine into a comprehensive index Objective well being encompasses objective factors that a person s life is going well Unlike subjective well being these factors can be assessed and quantified from an external perspective They include personal social economic and environmental aspects such as health education income housing leisure and security By relying on objective data measures of objective well being are less affected by cultural and personal biases influencing self reports However it is not universally accepted that objective well being is a form of well being in the strictest sense This doubt is based on the idea that well being is essentially a subjective phenomenon tied to a person s experience According to this view objective factors influence and indicate well being but are not themselves forms of well being Some inquiries focus only on subjective or objective well being Others combine both perspectives in their investigation including questions about how the two are related It is possible for subjective and objective well being to diverge For example a person may feel subjectively happy despite scoring low on objective measures like low income and frail health Individual and community well being Individual well being concerns the quality of life of a particular person and is the main focus of disciplines like psychology and philosophy Community well being applies the concept of well being to the state of a group of people It encompasses a broad range of economic social environmental and cultural aspects that influence how the community functions and thrives while ensuring that the community s needs are fulfilled One view sees community well being as the sum of individual well beings while others emphasize that the relation between the two is more complex Individual and community well being often support each other For instance high individual well being can lead a person to contribute more to their community and a well functioning community can make its members happy However there can also be tensions like when changes necessary for community well being conflict with the individual well being of certain members Closely related to community well being are categories of well being defined for specific demographic groups For instance child well being emphasizes health education material security and social development in a loving and nurturing environment Other examples include women s elderly student and employee well being Other types Various types of well being are categorized based on the domain of life to which they belong Physical well being concerns the domain of the body as the capacity to engage in physical activities and the absence of illness and bodily pain It includes general health considerations and the ability to perform one s social role without being hindered by physical limitations Psychological well being also called mental health is a state of mind characterized by internal balance It involves the absence of disorders and disturbances together with the abilities to cope with challenging situations maintain positive relationships and cultivate personal growth It is closely linked to intellectual spiritual and emotional well being Intellectual well being encompasses well functioning cognitive abilities and traits such as critical thinking problem solving and curiosity Spiritual well being is a state in which people find purpose in life and have inner peace self confidence and a sense of identity Emotional well being involves the capacities to comprehend articulate and regulate emotions together with an overall positive mood Hedonic well being refers to a life rich in pleasurable experiences and devoid of suffering Eudamonic well being is a form of personal fulfillment in which an individual flourishes by striving for excellence and actualizing their innate potentials Social well being concerns the quality and number of interpersonal connections including how well a person functions in their social environment and the level of social support available to them Economic well being refers to the economic situation of a person such as the resources and skills they have in regard to income job opportunities and financial stability Further types of well being include financial cultural political and environmental well being Theories of well beingTheories of well being aim to identify the essential features or components of well being They focus on the nature of well being itself rather than its external causes or conventional indicators used to measure it For example money and medicine can contribute to well being as external causes but are not themselves forms of well being A traditionally influential approach categorizes theories of well being into hedonism desire theories and objective list theories This classification does not cover all theories and the different categories are not always mutually exclusive In some cases distinct theories recommend different lifestyles while in others they advocate for the same lifestyle but provide different reasons for why it is good Hedonism Epicurus 341 270 BCE proposed a moderate hedonism recommending the cultivation of well being in the form of a tranquil state of mind through moderation Hedonism about well being also called prudential hedonism holds that pleasure and pain are the only factors of well being It states that how well a life goes for a person depends entirely on how it feels to live this life expressed as the balance of pleasure over pain One view sees pleasure and pain as bodily sensations like the pleasure of eating delicious food and the pain of injuring a leg However hedonists generally take a wider perspective characterizing pleasure and pain broadly as any experience that feels good or bad This broader understanding includes the intellectual pleasure of reading an engaging book and the sorrow of losing a loved one According to a common view the value of each episode of pleasure and pain depends only on its intensity and duration An alternative perspective also considers non quantitative factors such as the distinct quality of an experience One criticism of hedonism acknowledges that some pleasures have value but rejects that this is the case for all pleasures According to this view certain pleasures have no value and may even be bad for a person such as sadistic pleasures from torturing animals Another objection questions whether pleasure is the only thing of value for individuals citing things like virtue achievement friendship and the satisfaction of desires as distinct sources An influential counterexample to hedonism proposed by philosopher Robert Nozick 1938 2002 imagines an experience machine that simulates a life filled with pleasures which would be ideal from the perspective of hedonism Pointing out that life in this virtual simulation lacks authenticity Nozick argues that mere pleasure by itself is not the only source of value Desire theories According to desire theories the satisfaction of desires is the only source of well being This means that individuals have well being when they get what they want Desires are subjective attitudes directed at things or states like the desires to eat potato chips or become famous Desires present conditions that are either fulfilled or frustrated depending on whether the desired state of affairs is actualized Desire theories have some overlap with hedonism because people desire pleasure and the satisfaction of desires is typically pleasurable However people want various other goods besides pleasure and desire theorists emphasize the diversity of desires and the individual differences from one person to another For instance some people prioritize family and health while others primarily seek career success wealth knowledge or spiritual enlightenment As a result the concrete path to well being can vary greatly from person to person based on their subjective preferences Critics of desire theories point out that people sometimes desire things that are bad for them For example a child s desire to eat nothing but candy could lead to serious health problems and diminish well being rather than increase it In response some modified versions of desire theories have been proposed to avoid this counterexample They argue that only the satisfaction of well informed desires contributes to well being excluding desires in which individuals do not fully consider or understand the negative consequences Another objection holds that desire satisfaction is only good in a derivative sense It asserts that a person desires something because they believe that it is good meaning that the value primarily resides in the desired object rather than in the satisfaction of the desire Objective list theories Objective list theories state that a person s well being depends on several different factors These factors can include subjective components like pleasure and desire satisfaction but also encompass objective factors that enhance a person s well being independent of whether they subjectively care about them Objective list theorists have proposed diverse lists of items to cover a wide variety of elements contributing to well being such as health friendship achievement knowledge and autonomy Some versions argue that each element on the list is valuable by itself while others hold that they complement each other and only promote well being when combined One criticism of objective list theories asserts that they define an incoherent concept of well being by including diverse elements that have little in common Another objection challenges the proposed objectivity of objective list theories arguing that well being is essentially a subjective phenomenon According to this view what is good for a person depends on their subjective attitude and imposing an external definition of what is good leads to alienation Others One categorization distinguishes between subjectivist objectivist and hybrid theories Subjectivist theories understand well being as a purely subjective phenomenon characterized by the individual s own perspective mental states and attitudes Objectivist theories rely only on objective factors in their definition like health and achievement Hybrid theories incorporate both subjective and objective components For example one version states that well being consists in the subjective appreciation of objective goods A further distinction is between monist and pluralist theories Monist theories hold that a single good is responsible for well being meaning that all types of well being share the same essential features Pluralist theories see well being as a diverse phenomenon that manifests in many forms without a single essence characteristic of all of them For instance objective list theories are pluralist views whereas hedonism and desire theories are monist views Eudaimonism has its roots in ancient philosophy with Aristotle 384 322 BCE as one of its main proponents Perfectionism identifies well being with excellence by fulfilling human nature Perfectionists discern key human abilities such as rationality knowledge health and dignity holding that mastering and exercising them results in a life well lived As an objectivist perspective perfectionism asserts that the value of these goods does not depend on what the person thinks about them Eudaimonism is a closely related view asserting that a person has high well being or flourishes in life by actualizing their inborn potentials This view emphasizes that well being is not a passive state but an active process It manifests in an engaged lifestyle where individuals exercise virtues and rely on practical rationality to guide their decision making Value fulfillment theories see the fulfillment of evaluative attitudes as the basis of well being They are similar to desire theories but are not limited to desires and include other evaluative attitudes such as beliefs feelings and judgments about what is good Most theories assume that the definition of well being applies equally to everyone Variabilism rejects this assumption and argues that different conceptions of well being apply to different individuals For example one form of variabilism asserts that the nature of well being in children differs from that in adults Similarly some theories of well being are species relative proposing that the essential features of well being vary across distinct species Components and contributing factorsTo avoid the deep disagreements surrounding the essential features of well being some researchers examine components and contributing factors independent of whether they are integral parts or external causes For example there is wide agreement that positive emotions achievements interpersonal relationships and health typically contribute to well being in some form despite academic disagreements about their precise roles Feelings emotions and life satisfaction Positive and negative feelings of pleasure and pain are basic experiences of what is attractive and aversive Pleasures promote well being while pains diminish it Additionally they also influence how individuals perceive their lives and interact with their social and physical environments Pleasure and pain are commonly seen as symmetric phenomena that counterbalance each other According to this view the disvalue of an episode of intense pain can be annulled by the value of an episode of intense pleasure A different perspective argues that their relation is more complex asserting that pleasure and pain influence experience motivation and well being in distinct ways As a result one view holds that avoiding pain is more important than seeking pleasure Emotions include subjective experiences of pleasure and pain but are more complex psychological phenomena that encompass various additional aspects They are temporary states of arousal and include an evaluative assessment of a situation and a disposition to engage in certain types of behavior For example fear evaluates a situation as dangerous and is associated with a behavioral disposition to flee Additionally emotions are associated with physiological changes like sweating and bodily expressions that signal the emotional state to others High well being is associated with frequent positive emotions and infrequent negative ones Moods are a closely related factor of well being They typically last longer than emotions and have a less specific origin and evaluative assessment Life satisfaction is the subjective judgment of a person about how well their life is going As an evaluation of a person s life as a whole it is not limited to one particular area like employment or financial status Even though life satisfaction is influenced by the feelings and emotions a person currently has it is not limited to them and encompasses a broader perspective For example a person may be overall satisfied with their life even if they are experiencing intense stomach pain at the moment Individuals vary in how they arrive at their judgment of life satisfaction For instance some rely on instinctive gut feelings while others engage in deliberate and systematic reflections Sometimes individuals make inaccurate assessments and deceive themselves about their true quality of life like cases of false happiness Achievements and meaning Achievements or accomplishments refer to various types of success in life They usually involve sustained effort in which an individual sets a goal they consider valuable and strives to actualize it Achievements take many forms such as earning an educational degree attaining athletic success contributing to scientific research writing a well received novel starting a successful company and bringing up a happy family The contribution of achievements to well being depends not only on their quantity but also on their significance For example a difficult achievement that helps many people like finding a cure for cancer may contribute more to the achiever s well being than a trivial and pointless achievement like determining the exact number of crumbs in a cookie jar High achievement typically has a positive influence on other factors of well being For example it can help a person make more friends and improve their standard of living In some cases however it can have negative side effects like when an obsession with success increases anxiety and alienates loved ones Finding purpose or meaning in life is a closely related factor of well being It involves a judgment about the role and value of one s life in a wider context but its precise characterization is disputed Subjectivists argue that meaning is a subjective phenomenon They suggest that people actively create it and make their lives meaningful by dedicating themselves to what they love Objectivists contend that meaning is an objective phenomenon achieved by engaging with concrete values like truth moral goodness and beauty Some objectivists seek meaning in religious practice arguing that a supernatural purpose is the source of meaning for individuals who work towards its realization Other suggested sources of meaning include altruism creativity and self actualization The inability to find meaning in life can lead to an existential crisis associated with anxiety and spiritual confusion Friendship and other relationships Positive social connections and interactions are further key elements of well being In addition to the intrinsic joy of engaging with others social networks can offer material and emotional assistance during challenging times They also help people build trust share values promote the exchange of information and provide access to new opportunities Different types of social relationships may influence well being in different ways such as the contrasts between friends family members romantic partners co workers and teammates Researchers often focus specifically on friendship understood as a voluntary social relationship between people characterized by mutual concern trust and support Friends tend to spend time with each other enjoy each other s company and know personal facts about one another A central aspect of a friendship is its strength distinguishing close friends from distant ones Strength is determined by factors such as time spent together trust emotional intensity and readiness to support each other in difficult times The number of friends a person has is another relevant factor and having many friends is usually beneficial However if a person already has numerous friends making even more friends may not significantly impact their well being Some people prefer large friend networks with looser connections while others have few but strong friendships Health and disabilities Health is the overall condition in which an organism functions as it should both physically and mentally Good physical health is associated with high energy and the ability to perform everyday activities Physical illnesses and disabilities can negatively impact well being by causing pain limiting mobility and reducing the capacity to engage in enjoyable or necessary activities Good mental health is a state of internal equilibrium in which mental capacities work the way they should Mental disorders are associated with some form of cognitive impairment They typically disrupt the equilibrium by causing some form of distress and can also limit the activities a person can engage in Discrimination can amplify the negative effects of socially stigmatized illnesses and disabilities Despite its general impact health does not determine well being and some individuals affected by severe illnesses and disabilities report high levels of subjective well being The availability of healthcare services can mitigate negative effects by providing treatments to restore health or manage and alleviate symptoms Similarly adopting a healthy lifestyle like regular physical activity and a balanced diet is associated with long term benefits to well being Other components Knowledge is a cognitive success through which people stand in contact with reality As such it impacts well being in various ways by influencing how people think feel and act Knowledge assists in making good decisions achieving positive outcomes and avoiding negative ones For example knowledge of traffic rules helps prevent accidents and knowledge of a disease can aid in its treatment However it is controversial whether all types of knowledge contribute to well being For example knowing unimportant facts such as the exact number of blades of grass in one s backyard may have no real benefits Practically relevant knowledge about oneself and deep insights into general truths of the world by contrast typically have a more substantial impact on well being In addition to knowledge many related epistemic goods contribute to well being such as intelligence problem solving skills creativity open mindedness understanding and wisdom The value of epistemic goods is reflected in the emphasis given to education to foster the development of the minds of students Autonomy and freedom are often discussed factors of well being They concern the possibility to choose the ability to make informed decisions without coercion and the capacity to act without being constrained by external forces Individuals with a high level of autonomy and freedom tend to be more satisfied by having control over their lives This enables them to decide between important options and choose a life that reflects their desires preferences and values However these conditions may not automatically lead to well being and can sometimes have negative consequences For example a person lacking mental maturity and wisdom may freely engage in short sighted egoism while ignoring negative long term outcomes Eudaimonic conceptions of well being stress the importance of character traits and virtues Character traits are stable and consistent aspects of personality that influence how people think feel and act Traits associated with well being include wisdom courage kindness justice temperance and gratitude Virtues are character traits that promote ethical excellence serving as dispositions to act morally Virtue based theories of well being argue that virtue can be its own reward for example because living a morally upright life can be a fulfilling experience However virtue and well being may also conflict for instance when altruistic service to a greater good requires personal sacrifice Various social factors influence well being such as income quality of work work life balance personal security and schooling Similarly the physical environment plays a role with factors like housing conditions pollution noise and access to nature and recreational areas Relevant factors on the biological level include genetic makeup age neurotransmitters and hormones Models According to Ed Diener s tripartite model subjective well being consists of frequent positive affects infrequent negative affects and life satisfaction Models of well being are frameworks to understand and measure well being by clarifying its concept and components Psychologist Ed Diener s 1946 2021 tripartite model identifies three essential components of subjective well being the presence of positive affects the absence of negative affects and a positive evaluation of one s life as a whole Psychologist Carol Ryff 1950 present proposed the six factor model of psychological well being It states that the main elements are self acceptance personal growth purpose in life environmental mastery autonomy and positive relations with others Focusing on social well being sociologist Corey Keyes developed a five component model based on social integration social contribution social coherence social actualization and social acceptance Psychologist Martin Seligman 1942 present articulated the PERMA theory as a model of well being in general Its five elements are positive emotions engagement by following one s interests interpersonal relationships finding meaning in life and accomplishments in the pursuit of success and mastery Psychologist Michael Bishop developed the network model of well being which includes components such as feelings emotions attitudes traits and interactions with one s environment This model emphasizes that the different components form a causal network by influencing and reinforcing each other in complex ways In various fieldsWell being is relevant to many fields of inquiry as a central phenomenon of human life Grouped under the umbrella term science of well being some disciplines investigate the nature and components of well being directly Others study its causes and effects in specific domains of life such as physical and mental health social relationships altruism tolerance income and productivity A central motivation of academic inquiry is the belief that well being can be improved through appropriate measures Some of these measures focus on individual lifestyle changes Others take the form of societal interventions to alter how economic medical educational workplace and political institutions function The study of well being has a long history Many of the main schools of thought originated in ancient philosophy including hedonism eudaimonism and perfectionism In the medieval period philosophers built on and explored these ideas from a religious perspective In the modern and contemporary eras the approach became more secular and empirical Philosophers have examined the relation between well being and morality and analyzed its conceptual framework Although philosophical research on well being dates back millennia interest in the topic within the empirical sciences has only intensified since the second half of the 20th century Earlier work in the social and biomedical sciences focused more on identifying treating and preventing negative outcomes rather than exploring and promoting factors of positive functioning This shift in focus led to the emergence of positive psychology At the same time fields like economics sociology and anthropology began using their distinct methodologies to explore the causes indicators and effects of well being Positive psychology Martin Seligman is one of the founding fathers of positive psychology Positive psychology is the branch of psychology dedicated to the study of well being and related phenomena like happiness and flourishing It examines the factors and conditions of optimal human functioning This inquiry focuses both on individual factors like the experience of pleasure and pain and the role of character traits and on societal factors such as the way social institutions influence human well being On the affective level positive psychologists examine the different types of positive emotions such as joy amusement serenity and love They identify distinct components associated with mental evaluations physiological changes facial expressions experience and action tendencies Investigated topics include the conditions under which positive emotions arise how they contribute to overall well being and how they differ from negative emotions On the cognitive level positive psychology studies how intelligence wisdom and creativity improve quality of life It further explores the relation between cognitive and affective processes for example how cognitive interpretations evoke emotions and how emotions prompt thought processes Another central subfield concerns the role of personality in particular how individuals differ regarding personality traits and how these traits impact well being The VIA model an influential framework in positive psychology analyzes personality based on six main virtues wisdom courage humanity justice temperance and transcendence A closely related topic focuses on the role of the self which encompasses the way a person conceptualizes and imagines themselves Important factors for well being are self esteem or how a person evaluates themselves and authenticity or the degree to which a person s behavior is subjectively consistent with their sense of self A further area explores the role of social and physical circumstances This includes the effects of trust and cooperation on group well being and dilemmas in which self interest conflicts with group interest Having close relationships and engaging in altruistic behavior are generally beneficial to a person s well being In addition to the study of the different components and causes of well being positive psychologists also seek to understand how well being changes over time They are especially interested in the effects of major negative events like the death of a child or bankruptcy and aim to discern the psychological features that help people maintain their level of well being like self regulation and an optimistic outlook Philosophy Philosophy examines the nature function and theoretical foundations of well being Philosophers explore its essential features by developing and comparing theories of well being such as hedonistic theories desire theories and objective list theories They also investigate the foundational principles of the scientific study of well being Considering that well being has both subjective and evaluative aspects they seek to determine whether scientific objectivity is possible and to what extent well being can be quantified and compared between individuals Some philosophers challenge the concept of well being understood as what is ultimately good for someone For instance philosopher G E Moore 1873 1958 rejects the idea that something can be good relative to a person asserting instead that all values are impersonal Another criticism suggests that the concept of well being is incoherent arguing that it groups together diverse elements without a shared essence Despite these criticisms well being plays a central role in ethics and value theory Welfarism is the view that well being is the only basic source of value It holds that everything else like intelligence and health care is only valuable to the extent that it promotes well being and reduces ill being Pure welfarists argue that the raw sum of everyone s well being is all that matters Impure welfarists consider additional factors such as ensuring that well being is distributed equally among people This modification aims to avoid situations in which some people have abundantly good lives at the expense of others who experience severe deprivation Another topic concerns the relation between moral virtue and well being According to one view the two always accompany each other meaning it is in everyone s self interest to act virtuously An alternative perspective denies this close connection stating that at least in some cases a virtuous person has to compromise their own well being for the greater good Philosophers further explore the relation between well being and death One position questions the common sense idea that death is generally bad for a person It argues that since death marks the end of a person s existence there is nothing that can benefit or harm the person anymore Animal ethicists apply the concept of well being to non human animals examining what animal well being consists in and how it affects the moral obligations of humans toward non human animals Other fields Welfare economics studies the influence of economic activity on well being One of its primary goals is to develop standards for evaluating and choosing between competing policy proposals based on their potential benefit to well being This field uses metrics such as distribution of income gross domestic product consumer surplus and compensating variation For example distributing income more equally is usually beneficial for well being but needs to be balanced against potential negative side effects such as a decline in productivity The economics of happiness a closely related field focuses specifically on the connection between economic phenomena and individual happiness One of its findings is the Easterlin paradox within a given country people with higher income tend to be happier than those with lower income yet overall happiness does not trend upward as the average income of everyone increases The World Happiness Index 2023 measures levels of happiness worldwide The growing academic interest in well being is also reflected in the political sphere challenging the gross domestic product as the main indicator of national success As a result indices to track compare and promote the well being of populations and related phenomena have been established at both national and international levels Examples are Bhutan s Gross National Happiness the UK Measures of National Well being and the World Happiness Report Following this trend policymakers are increasingly relying on well being metrics and related factors to inform their decision making processes It also affects the field of law where considerations about how to protect and promote well being can influence legislation Well being is also a topic in various biological sciences with a focus on the biological factors influencing the well being Research from twin studies suggests that genetic composition is one of the most impactful factors Other biological factors include neurotransmitters and hormones that impact positive feelings such as endorphin dopamine serotonin oxytocin and cortisol In neuroscience researchers try to uncover the neural correlates of well being using neuroimaging techniques The problem of well being plays a central role in medicine since medical interventions typically aim to restore secure and enhance patient well being Considerations of well being also affect the treatment of incurable diseases like Parkinson s disease In such cases therapies aim to minimize negative effects helping patients lead productive and fulfilling lives despite their illness However well being is not the only consideration governing medical interventions and the commitment to patient autonomy is another core principle This can lead to conflicts when patients act against their self interest and reject treatments that would improve their well being Sociologists examine the relation between well being and social phenomena such as race socioeconomic status and education They use both subjective and objective metrics with some studies dedicated to well being in general while others focus on specific domains such as work family and housing or on particular demographic groups such as employees or the elderly Anthropologists are interested in the concept of well being in different cultures They seek to understand what people at different times and places associate with a good life such as the culture specific norms values and practices for achieving personal well being A key assumption in this field is that the concept of well being involves a commitment to what is desirable and an evaluative framework for guiding behavior and assessing lifestyles Anthropologists compare these commitments and frameworks across different cultures like the differences between Western and non Western conceptions of well being They describe the similarities and differences typically without taking a position on which view is superior According to Laozi s Taoism well being is achieved by acting in harmony with nature Diverse perspectives on well being are also found in religious and other traditional belief systems where well being often serves as a goal of spiritual practice In various traditional forms of Hinduism the highest kind of well being is not determined by objective external conditions Instead it depends primarily on experiential knowledge of the self brought about through practices like self inquiry and meditation Buddhism identifies suffering as a central aspect of all existence It aims to produce well being by eliminating the causes of suffering such as desire and ignorance achieved through the practice of Buddhist virtues like compassion loving kindness and equanimity From the perspective of Confucianism well being consists in virtuous activity as a process leading to sagehood According to Taoism a life high in well being is characterized by effortless action that is in harmony with nature and guided by spontaneous dispositions The Christian tradition holds that the personal connection to God is a central factor of well being which may manifest in virtuous activity or contemplation of God According to the teachings of Islam well being is achieved by dedicating one s life as much as possible to worshiping Allah and fulfilling His will as expressed in the Quran See alsoGross National Well being Lived experience Prosperity Welfare spending Workplace wellnessReferencesNotes In slightly different sense the term is also used to talk about the state of a group of people Pleasure life satisfaction and happiness are central to the subjective side of well being and some theories assert that they are the only components of well being In a slightly different sense the term is also used as a synonym for subjective well being There are various alternative definitions of emotional well being and it is sometimes used as an umbrella term including many other types of well being As a technical term hedonism describes a respectable philosophical position It contrasts with the negative meaning of the term found in everyday language denoting an egoistic lifestyle seeking short term gratification To quantify the amount of pleasure contained in an experience the term hedon is sometimes used Some versions of desire theories are only interested in whether a desire is objectively fulfilled or not independent of whether the person subjectively knows about it According to others fulfilled desires are only valuable if the person believes that they are fulfilled Although these elements are characteristic of most emotions the precise definition of emotions is disputed and some emotions lack certain elements These categories are not exclusive For example a co worker can be a friend at the same time Some theorists distinguish different types of friendship arguing that they do not contribute to well being in the same way For example a friendship based on the enjoyment of each other s company is different from one based on achieving a common goal An influential characterization by Aristotle holds that in the highest form of friendship each friend cares about the other for the other s own sake The exact definitions of these terms are disputed The topic of quantification also concerns problems of aggregation like the questions of how individual components of well being determine overall well being how the well being of individuals is related to group well being and how well being at different moments is combined into well being over extended periods Some definitions are limited to the well being of humans while others take the well being of all sentient creatures into account A closely related discussion is between atomists and holists about well being Their disagreements touch on questions like whether momentary well being is more basic than well being over extended periods of time and whether the temporal order of episodes of well being matters Citations Crisp 2021 Lead section 1 The ConceptCampbell 2015 pp 403 404Lin 2022 Lead section Crisp 2021 1 The ConceptHeadey Holmstrom amp Wearing 1984 pp 115 116Galtung 2005 p 478 Jarden amp Roache 2023Lee Kubzansky amp VanderWeele 2021 pp 2 3Oades amp Mossman 2017 pp 7 10 Bradley 2015a p 9Rice 2015 pp 378 379Dung 2023 pp 1 2 Phillips amp Wong 2016 p xxixDasgupta 2001 p 21Veenhoven 2023b pp 7683 7684 Campbell 2015 p 403 Schroeder 2021 1 1 1 Good Simpliciter and Good ForOrsi 2015 p 63 Hooker 2015 pp 15 16Hurka 2006a pp 719 720Ronnow Rasmussen 2015 pp 29 30 Campbell 2015 p 403Crisp 2021 1 The Concept Campbell 2015 p 403Hooker 2015 p 15Lin 2022 Lead section Pallies 2021 pp 887 888Katz 2016 Lead sectionJohnson 2009 pp 704 705Feldman 2001 pp 663 668Alston 2006 Demarcation of the TopicCrisp 2021 1 The Concept Norman 2005 pp 358 359Haybron 2020 2 1 The Chief CandidatesLazari Radek 2024 pp 45 46Besser 2020 Conclusion Hooker 2015 pp 15 16Western amp Tomaszewski 2016 p 2Proctor 2023 p 6953American Psychological Association 2018 Estes 2017 p 3Alatartseva amp Barysheva 2015 pp 36 37Fletcher 2015 pp 1 2 Campbell 2015 p 404 Fletcher 2015 pp 1 2Jarden amp Roache 2023 OED Staff 2024 Galvin 2018 p 2Western amp Tomaszewski 2016 pp 1 2Lee amp Kim 2014 pp 12 Proctor 2023 pp 6953 6955Veenhoven 2008 pp 45 46Diener 1984 pp 543 544Busseri amp Sadava 2011 p 290Luhmann Krasko amp Terwiel 2021 p 1232 Diener 1984 pp 543 546Busseri amp Sadava 2011 pp 292Dullien et al 2017 p 191Smith amp Clay 2010 p 159 Voukelatou et al 2021 pp 279 280Boelhouwer amp Noll 2023 pp 4783 4785Kubzansky 2020 pp 222 223Western amp Tomaszewski 2016 pp 1 2Chasco 2023 pp 4779 4780 Boelhouwer amp Noll 2023 p 4784 Rojas 2017 pp 43 44Boelhouwer amp Noll 2023 p 4784Kubzansky 2020 pp 222 223 Boelhouwer amp Noll 2023 pp 4784 4785Western amp Tomaszewski 2016 pp 1 3Smith amp Clay 2010 p 158 Lee Kim amp Phillips 2014 pp 1 2Lee amp Kim 2014 pp 10 11Crisp 2021 1 The Concept Lee amp Kim 2014 pp 12 16Dasgupta 2001 p 21VanderWeele 2021 p 421 Helseth amp Haraldstad 2014 pp 746 749Sun amp Shek 2023 pp 7697 7698Lips amp Gordon 2023 pp 7762 7763Mascherini 2023 pp 7660 7661Dsouza Chakraborty amp Kamath 2023 pp 1 2 Capio Sit amp Abernethy 2023 pp 5179 5180Bharti 2024 p 27Tavanti 2023 p 443 Rodman amp Fry 2009 p 10 Rodman amp Fry 2009 p 10Murphy Donovan amp Smart 2020 pp 97 99 103 104 112Tavanti 2023 p 443 Tavanti 2023 p 444 Alorani amp Alradaydeh 2018 p 291Cordella amp Poiani 2021 p 42Tavanti 2023 p 444 Tavanti 2023 p 444Park et al 2023 p 13 Park et al 2023 pp 11 14 Niemiec 2023 pp 2212 2213Yamaguchi amp Halberstadt 2011 p 96 Cicognani 2023 p 6714Tavanti 2023 p 443 Krause 2016 p 114Tavanti 2023 p 443 Tavanti 2023 pp 443 444Volkov et al 2023 p S141de Oliveira Cardoso et al 2023 p 2913 Hooker 2015 pp 15 16Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 pp 602 603Bradley 2015a pp 11 16 Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 pp 602 603 606Crisp 2021 Lead section 4 2 Desire Theories Feldman 2001 pp 665 666Weijers 2c EpicurusO Keefe 2015 pp 29 30 Weijers 1a Folk Hedonism Hooker 2015 pp 16 17Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 p 605Bradley 2015a pp 13Fletcher 2016 p 5 Katz 2016 Lead sectionFeldman 2001 pp 663 668Pallies 2021 pp 887 888Weijers 4b Pleasure as Sensation 4d Pleasure as Pro Attitude Bradley 2015a pp 16 Bradley 2015a pp 23 24Crisp 2021 4 1 Hedonism Bradley 2015a pp 22 23Feldman 2004 pp 38 39Moore 2019 2 3 2 Insufficiency Objections Bradley 2015a pp 30Moore 2019 2 3 1 Non Necessity Objections Bradley 2015a pp 27 28Heathwood 2015 pp 146 147Tiberius 2015 pp 163 164 Hooker 2015 p 17Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 p 606Bradley 2015a pp 34 36Fletcher 2016 p 5 Bradley 2015a pp 34 35 Bradley 2015a pp 34 35 46 Hooker 2015 p 17Bradley 2015a p 38Crisp 2021 4 2 Desire Theories Hooker 2015 p 17Bradley 2015a pp 39 40 Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 p 606Bradley 2015a pp 39 42Crisp 2021 4 2 Desire Theories Crisp 2021 4 2 Desire Theories Hooker 2015 pp 15 17 18Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 pp 605 606Fletcher 2016 p 5Crisp 2021 4 3 Objective List Theories Hooker 2015 pp 29 30 Hooker 2015 p 33Fletcher 2016 p 5 55 56 Fletcher 2016 p 59 60Crisp 2021 4 3 Objective List Theories Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 p 606Lin 2022 Lead sectionHeathwood 2021 pp 7 8 16 17 26 27 Lin 2015 pp 331 332Fletcher 2015 p 50 Besser Jones 2015 pp 187 188 Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 pp 606Bradley 2015a pp 47 48 51 52 56 57Fletcher 2016 pp 77 79 Besser Jones 2015 pp 187 189 Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 p 606 Crisp 2021 1 The ConceptBradley 2015a pp 48 49 Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 pp 607 609Hooker 2015 pp 15 16 Hooker 2015 pp 16 17Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 p 605Bradley 2015a pp 13Fletcher 2016 p 5OECD 2011 pp 266 269 Shriver 2014 pp 135 137Luper 2009 p 102Marshall 2018 pp 103 104 Zelenski 2020 Defining Emotions and Other Affective StatesAmerican Psychological Association 2018a Zelenski 2020 Defining Emotions and Other Affective States Positive emotions Summing Up Tov amp Diener 2013 Lead section Zelenski 2020 Defining Emotions and Other Affective States Glossary MoodsAmerican Psychological Association 2018c 2 American Psychological Association 2018bZelenski 2020 Glossary Life SatisfactionVeenhoven 1996 Concept of Life SatisfactionTov amp Diener 2013 Lead section Bradford amp Keller 2015 pp 271 272 279 280Hooker 2015 pp 18 21 22Seligman 2011 p 18 Hooker 2015 pp 18 21 22Bradford amp Keller 2015 pp 271 272 Hooker 2015 pp 21 22 Seligman 2011 p 17 18Kauppinen 2015 pp 281 282Bradley 2015 pp 66 67 Kauppinen 2015 pp 281 286Bradley 2015 pp 66 67 Yalom 2020 pp 431 435 437 Yalom 2020 pp 419 423Butenaite Sondaite amp Mockus 2016 p 11 OECD 2011 pp 23 169 172Fehr amp Harasymchuk 2017 pp 104 105Seligman 2011 p 20 Fehr amp Harasymchuk 2017 pp 104 105 Jeske 2015 pp 235 237Fehr amp Harasymchuk 2017 pp 106 109 Fehr amp Harasymchuk 2017 pp 105Bradley 2015 pp 63 65 Fehr amp Harasymchuk 2017 pp 105 106Bradley 2015 pp 63 65 Bradley 2015 pp 63 65 Fehr amp Harasymchuk 2017 p 106 Bradley 2015 pp 63 65Jeske 2015 pp 233 234 Jeske 2015 pp 233 234 Layard amp Neve 2023 p 153Schroeder 2015 pp 222 223Rokne amp Wahl 2023 pp 2957 2958 Schroeder 2015 pp 223 224Layard amp Neve 2023 pp 161 164 Murphy Donovan amp Smart 2020 pp 97 99 103 104 112Layard amp Neve 2023 pp 153 155 Schroeder 2015 pp 221 222 Layard amp Neve 2023 pp 157 164Schroeder 2015 pp 226 227 Muhajarine 2023 p 2976Toscano 2018 pp 300 301 Steup amp Neta 2024 Lead section 1 The Varieties of Cognitive Success Hazlett 2015 pp 259 261McCormick 2014 p 42Pritchard 2013 pp 10 11 Hazlett 2015 pp 259 262Bradley 2015 pp 61 62Hooker 2015 pp 18 22 23 Hazlett 2015 pp 259 266Gordon 5 Understanding and Epistemic ValueKekes 2005 p 959Degenhardt 2019 pp 1 6 Veenhoven 2023a pp 2594Hooker 2015 pp 18 19 23 24 Bradley 2015 pp 65 66Hooker 2015 pp 18 19 23 24Veenhoven 2023a pp 2594 2596 Bradley 2015 pp 62 63Hooker 2015 pp 25 26Rashid amp Niemiec 2023 pp 723 725Baril 2015 pp 242 243 Zelenski 2020 4 PersonalitySeligman amp Csikszentmihalyi 2000 pp 5 9Pedrotti et al 2024 pp 53 55Miller 2011 p 151 OECD 2011 pp 23 24Layard amp Neve 2023 pp 139 142 179 203 204 235 237Zelenski 2020 7 Social and Physical Environments Gallagher 2009 pp 1033Bjorndal et al 2023 ResultsHansen amp Blekesaune 2022 pp 1277 1278Gomez Gomez et al 2023 Abstract 1 IntroductionDfarhud Malmir amp Khanahmadi 2014 Abstract Conclusion Fisher et al 2024 pp 20 21Barker 2019 Psychological theories of Wellbeing Maddux 2024 Hedonic Versus Eudaimonic Conceptions Empirical EvidenceBishop 2012 pp 1 4Gallagher Lopez amp Preacher 2009 pp 1025 1027Barker 2019 Psychological theories of Wellbeing Fisher et al 2024 pp 20 22Barker 2019 Psychological theories of Wellbeing Gallagher Lopez amp Preacher 2009 p 1027Fisher et al 2024 pp 20 22 Seligman 2011 pp 16 18Fisher et al 2024 pp 20 22Barker 2019 Psychological theories of Wellbeing Bishop 2012 pp 1 6Tiberius amp Haybron 2022 pp 609 610 Amichai Hamburger 2009 pp 2 3Galvin 2018 pp 5 6Huppert Baylis amp Keverne 2005 p vCloninger 2004 pp v viiAlexandrova 2017 pp xiii xiv xxx Alexandrova 2017 pp xxvii xxviiiAmichai Hamburger 2009 pp 3 4 Fletcher 2015 pp 2 3White 2008 pp ix x Goodman 2009 pp 457 458 462 463 465 466White 2008 pp viii ix White 2008 pp viii ix 149 150 154 155 157 158Shaver 2015 pp 95 96Crisp 2021 Lead section 4 Theories of Well being Huppert Baylis amp Keverne 2005 p vFredrickson 2005 pp 217 218Ryff 2024 p 408Seligman amp Csikszentmihalyi 2000 p 5Fletcher 2015 pp 1 2Jarden amp Roache 2023 Warren 2010 p 319 Zelenski 2020 1 Describing the Science of Positive Psychology Defining Positive PsychologyKaczmarek 2023 p 1051Colman 2015 Positive PsychologyVitterso 2012 pp 473 474Seligman amp Csikszentmihalyi 2000 p 5 Zelenski 2020 2 Positive Emotions 3 Happiness Summing upSeligman amp Csikszentmihalyi 2000 p 5Pedrotti et al 2024 pp xvii xviii 116 119 Zelenski 2020 6 Thinking Summing upSeligman amp Csikszentmihalyi 2000 pp 10 11Pedrotti et al 2024 pp xvii xviii Zelenski 2020 4 PersonalitySeligman amp Csikszentmihalyi 2000 pp 5 9Pedrotti et al 2024 pp 53 55 Zelenski 2020 5 The Self Summing up Zelenski 2020 7 Social and Physical Environments Summing up 8 Close Relationships Summing upPedrotti et al 2024 pp xvii xviii Zelenski 2020 9 Stability and Change Summing upKettlewell et al 2020 pp 1 2 Fletcher 2015 pp 1 2Crisp 2021 Lead section 1 The Concept 4 Theories of Well being Alexandrova 2017 pp xxx 79 106Bradley 2015a pp 79 80 Bradley 2015a pp 70 73Lee amp Kim 2014 pp 10 12Raibley 2015 pp 342 343 Crisp 2021 3 Moore s ChallengeOrsi 2015 pp 63 64 Crisp 2021 3 Scanlon s Challenge Crisp 2021 5 1 WelfarismDorsey 2015 pp 417 418Bramble 2020 What is welfarism Dorsey 2012 p 36Crisp 2021 5 1 Welfarism Bramble 2020 What is welfarism Raibley 2015 pp 342 343 Crisp 2021 5 2 Well being and VirtueBaril 2015 pp 242 243 Bradley 2015 p 320Fletcher 2016 pp 145 147Bradley 2015a pp 102 103 Rice 2015 pp 378 379Dung 2023 pp 1 2 McCain 2008 pp 63 66Angner 2015 pp 492 494 Graham 2012 pp 6 8 Alexandrova 2017 pp xvii xviiiEasterlin amp O Connor 2022 pp 1 25 Kelly 2021 1 Who We are Bache amp Scott 2018 pp 1 8Huppert Baylis amp Keverne 2005 p vZelenski 2020 1 Describing the Science of Positive PsychologyOECD 2023Kelly 2021 1 Who We are Sarch 2015 p 479 Gallagher 2009 pp 1033Bjorndal et al 2023 Results Gomez Gomez et al 2023 Abstract 1 IntroductionDfarhud Malmir amp Khanahmadi 2014 Abstract Conclusion Davidson 2005 pp 109 110King 2019 The neuroscience of well being Groll 2015 pp 504 505Miettinen amp Flegel 2003 pp 311 313 Markides 2000 pp 2305Eatough 2018 pp 173 174 Groll 2015 pp 504 505Denier 2007 p 97 Markides 2000 pp 2299 2302 2306 2307Desjardins 2008 pp 7 9Mascherini 2023 pp 7660 7661 Fischer amp Victor 2023 pp 335 336 339 352 353Mathews amp Izquierdo 2010 pp 1 2 Tiwald 2015 pp 56 57 Salagame 2013 pp 373 374 376 378Singh Raina amp Oman 2023 pp 195 197 Segall amp Kristeller 2023 pp 211 213Gowans 2015 pp 70 73 Kim 2015 p 40 Hodge et al 2023 pp 153 155Lauinger 2015 pp 83 87 Saritoprak amp Abu Raiya 2023 p 182Joshanloo 2017 pp 115 118 Sources Alatartseva Elena Barysheva Galina 2015 Well being Subjective and Objective Aspects Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 166 36 42 doi 10 1016 j sbspro 2014 12 479 Alexandrova Anna 2017 A Philosophy for the Science of Well being Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 930051 8 Alorani Omar Ismael Alradaydeh Mu taz Fuad 2018 Spiritual well being perceived social support and life satisfaction among university students International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 23 3 291 298 doi 10 1080 02673843 2017 1352522 Alston William 2006 Pleasure The Encyclopedia of Philosophy 7 Oakeshott Presupposition 2nd ed Macmillan Reference ISBN 978 0 02 865787 5 American Psychological Association 2018 Subjective Well Being SWB APA Dictionary of Psychology American Psychological Association American Psychological Association 2018a Emotion APA Dictionary of Psychology American Psychological Association American Psychological Association 2018b Life Satisfaction APA Dictionary of Psychology American Psychological Association American Psychological Association 2018c Mood APA Dictionary of Psychology American Psychological Association Amichai Hamburger Yair 2009 Introduction In Amichai Hamburger Yair ed Technology and Psychological Well being Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 88581 2 Angner Erik 2015 40 Well Being and Economics In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Bache Ian Scott Karen 2018 Wellbeing in Politics and Policy In Bache Ian Scott Karen eds The Politics of Wellbeing Theory Policy and Practice Springer International Publishing doi 10 1007 978 3 319 58394 5 1 ISBN 978 3 319 58394 5 Baril Anne 2015 20 Virtue and Well Being In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Barker Sue 2019 2 Mental Wellbeing Mental Wellbeing and Psychology The Role of Art and History in Self Discovery and Creation Routledge ISBN 978 0 429 78461 3 Besser Lorraine L 2020 5 Happiness as Satisfaction The Philosophy of Happiness An Interdisciplinary Introduction Routledge ISBN 978 1 315 28367 8 Besser Jones Lorraine 2015 15 Eudaimonism In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Bharti Jaya 2024 2 Effect of Improper Waste Disposal on Environmental Physical and Emotional Well Being of Human Beings In Rajpal Ankur Choudhury Moharana Goswami Srijan Chakravorty Arghya Raghavan Vimala eds Waste Management and Treatment Advances and Innovations CRC Press ISBN 978 1 000 95217 9 Bishop Michael 2012 The Network Theory of Well Being An Introduction Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition Logic and Communication 7 1 doi 10 4148 biyclc v7i0 1773 Bjorndal Ludvig Daae Nes Ragnhild Bang Czajkowski Nikolai Roysamb Espen 2023 The structure of well being a single underlying factor with genetic and environmental influences Quality of Life Research 32 10 2805 2816 doi 10 1007 s11136 023 03437 7 hdl 10852 111072 PMID 37209357 Boelhouwer Jeroen Noll Heinz Herbert 2023 Objective Quality of Life In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Bradford Gwen Keller Simon 2015 22 Well Being and Achivement In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Bradley Ben 2015 26 Well Being and Death In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Bradley Ben 2015a Well being Polity Press ISBN 978 0 7456 6272 5 Bramble Ben 2020 Welfarism In LaFollette Hugh ed International Encyclopedia of Ethics John Wiley amp Sons Ltd ISBN 978 1 4443 6707 2 Busseri Michael A Sadava Stan W 2011 A Review of the Tripartite Structure of Subjective Well Being Implications for Conceptualization Operationalization Analysis and Synthesis Personality and Social Psychology Review 15 3 290 314 doi 10 1177 1088868310391271 PMID 21131431 Butenaite Joana Sondaite Jolanta Mockus Antanas 2016 Components of Existential Crisis A Theoretical Analysis International Journal of Psychology A Biopsychosocial Approach 18 9 27 doi 10 7220 2345 024X 18 1 Campbell Stephen M 2015 The Concept of Well Being In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Capio Catherine M Sit Cindy H P Abernethy Bruce 2023 Physical Well Being In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Chasco Coro 2023 Objective Index of Quality of Life for Urban Areas In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer pp 4779 4783 doi 10 1007 978 3 031 17299 1 1985 ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Cicognani Elvira 2023 Social Well Being In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Cloninger C Robert 2004 Feeling good Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 505137 7 Colman Andrew M 2015 Positive Psychology A Dictionary of Psychology Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 965768 1 Cordella Marisa Poiani Aldo 2021 Fulfilling Ageing Psychosocial and Communicative Perspectives on Ageing Springer Nature ISBN 978 3 030 60071 6 Crisp Roger 2021 Well Being The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Retrieved 15 December 2024 Dasgupta Partha 2001 Human Well Being and the Natural Environment Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 924788 2 Davidson Richard J 2005 Well Being and Affective Style Neural Substrates and Biobehavioural Correlates In Huppert Felicia A Baylis Nick Keverne Barry eds The Science of Well being Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 856752 3 de Oliveira Cardoso Nicolas Markus Juliana de Lara Machado Wagner Guilherme Alexandre Anselmo 2023 Measuring Financial Well Being A Systematic Review of Psychometric Instruments Journal of Happiness Studies 24 8 2913 2939 doi 10 1007 s10902 023 00697 5 Degenhardt M A B 2019 Education and the Value of Knowledge Routledge pp 1 6 ISBN 978 1 000 62799 2 Archived from the original on 5 April 2023 Retrieved 9 March 2023 Denier Yvonne 2007 Autonomy in Dependence A Defence of Careful Solidarity In Nys Thomas Denier Yvonne Vandevelde Toon eds Autonomy amp Paternalism Reflections on the Theory and Practice of Health Care Peeters Publishers ISBN 978 90 429 1880 1 Desjardins Richard 2008 Editorial European Journal of Education 43 1 7 9 doi 10 1111 j 1465 3435 2007 00339 x Dfarhud Dariush Malmir Maryam Khanahmadi Mohammad 2014 Happiness amp Health The Biological Factors Systematic Review Article Iranian Journal of Public Health 43 11 1468 1477 Diener Ed 1984 Subjective Well Being Psychological Bulletin 95 3 542 575 doi 10 1037 0033 2909 95 3 542 PMID 6399758 Dorsey Dale 2012 The Basic Minimum A Welfarist Approach Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 01711 5 Dorsey Dale 2015 34 Welfarism In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Dsouza Josmitha Maria Chakraborty Anirban Kamath Neetha 2023 Intergenerational communication and elderly well being Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health 20 doi 10 1016 j cegh 2023 101251 Dullien Sebastian Goodwin Neva Harris Jonathan Nelson Julie Roach Brian Torras Mariano 2017 Macroeconomics in Context A European Perspective Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 28966 1 Dung Leonard 2023 Dimensions of animal wellbeing Philosophy and the Mind Sciences 4 doi 10 33735 phimisci 2023 9878 Easterlin Richard A O Connor Kelsey J 2022 The Easterlin Paradox In Zimmermann Klaus F ed Handbook of Labor Human Resources and Population Economics Springer International Publishing doi 10 1007 978 3 319 57365 6 184 2 ISBN 978 3 319 57365 6 Eatough Virginia 2018 What can t be cured must be endured living with Parkinson s disease In Galvin Kathleen ed Routledge Handbook of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 53252 1 Estes Richard J 2017 The Search for Well Being From Ancient to Modern Times In Estes Richard J Sirgy M Joseph eds The Pursuit of Human Well Being The Untold Global History Springer ISBN 978 3 319 39101 4 Fehr Beverley Harasymchuk Cheryl 2017 The Role of Friendships in Well Being In Maddux James E ed Subjective Well Being and Life Satisfaction 1 ed Routledge pp 103 128 ISBN 978 1 351 23187 9 Feldman Fred 2001 Hedonism In Becker Lawrence C Becker Charlotte B eds Encyclopedia of Ethics Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 35096 3 Feldman Fred 2004 Pleasure and the Good Life Concerning the Nature Varieties and Plausibility of Hedonism Clarendon Press ISBN 978 0 19 926516 9 Fischer Edward F Victor Sam 2023 Happiness and Well Being In Laidlaw James ed The Cambridge Handbook for the Anthropology of Ethics Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 48280 6 Fisher Zoe Wilkie Lowri Hamill Alexandra Kemp Andrew H 2024 Theories of wellbeing practical applications and implications for coaching The Health and Wellbeing Coaches Handbook 1 ed Routledge pp 20 37 doi 10 4324 9781003319016 4 ISBN 978 1 003 31901 6 Fletcher Guy 2015 Introduction In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Fletcher Guy 2016 The Philosophy of Well Being An Introduction 1st ed Routledge ISBN 978 1 138 81834 7 Fredrickson Barbara L 2005 The Broaden and Build Theory of Positive Emotions In Huppert Felicia A Baylis Nick Keverne Barry eds The Science of Well being Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 856752 3 Gallagher Matthew W 2009 Well Being In Lopez Shane J ed Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 4051 6125 1 Gallagher Matthew W Lopez Shane J Preacher Kristopher J 2009 The Hierarchical Structure of Well Being Journal of Personality 77 4 1025 1050 doi 10 1111 j 1467 6494 2009 00573 x PMC 3865980 PMID 19558444 Galtung Johan 2005 Meeting Basic Needs Peace and Development In Huppert Felicia A Baylis Nick Keverne Barry eds The Science of Well being Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 856752 3 Galvin Kathleen 2018 Introduction In Galvin Kathleen ed Routledge Handbook of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 53252 1 Gomez Gomez Alex Martin Blanca Montero San Haro Noemi Pozo Oscar J 2023 Determination of Well Being Related Markers in Nails by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 267 doi 10 1016 j ecoenv 2023 115586 hdl 10230 61376 Goodman Lenn E 2009 Happiness In Pasnau Robert ed The Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy Cambridge University Press pp 457 471 ISBN 978 1 139 09543 3 Gordon Emma C Understanding in Epistemology Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 22 August 2024 Retrieved 20 August 2024 Gowans Christopher W 2015 6 Buddhist Understandings of Well Being In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Graham Carol 2012 Happiness Around the World The Paradox of Happy Peasants and Miserable Millionaires Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 960628 3 Groll Daniel 2015 41 Medicine and Well Being In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Hansen Thomas Blekesaune Morten 2022 The Age and Well Being Paradox A Longitudinal and Multidimensional Reconsideration European Journal of Ageing 19 4 1277 1286 doi 10 1007 s10433 022 00709 y PMC 9729496 PMID 36506681 Haybron Dan 2020 Happiness The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Retrieved 19 October 2024 Hazlett Allan 2015 21 Epistemic Goods In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Headey Bruce Holmstrom Elsie Wearing Alexander 1984 Well being and ill being Different dimensions Social Indicators Research 14 2 Springer Nature 115 139 doi 10 1007 BF00293406 Heathwood Chris 2015 Monism and Pluralism About Value In Hirose Iwao Olson Jonas eds The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 022143 0 Heathwood Chris 2021 Happiness and Well Being Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 58642 9 Helseth Solvi Haraldstad Kristin 2014 Child Well Being In Michalos Alex C ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer Netherlands doi 10 1007 978 94 007 0753 5 339 ISBN 978 94 007 0753 5 Hodge Adam S Hook Joshua N Kim Jichan J Mosher David K McLaughlin Aaron T Davis Don E Van Tongeren Daryl R 2023 Positive Psychology and Christianity In Davis Edward B Worthington Everett L Schnitker Sarah A eds Handbook of Positive Psychology Religion and Spirituality Springer International Publishing doi 10 1007 978 3 031 10274 5 10 ISBN 978 3 031 10273 8 Hooker Brad 2015 The Elements of Well Being Journal of Practical Ethics 3 1 SSRN 2624595 Huppert Felicia A Baylis Nick Keverne Barry 2005 Preface In Huppert Felicia A Baylis Nick Keverne Barry eds The Science of Well being Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 856752 3 Hurka Thomas 2006a Intrinsic Value In Borchert Donald M ed Encyclopedia of Philosophy Vol 4 2nd ed Macmillan ISBN 978 0 02 866072 1 Jarden Aaron Roache Annalise 2023 What Is Wellbeing International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20 6 5006 doi 10 3390 ijerph20065006 PMC 10049282 PMID 36981914 Jeske Diane 2015 19 Friendship and Well Being In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Johnson Danielle 2009 Pleasure In Lopez Shane J ed Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 4051 6125 1 Joshanloo Mohsen 2017 Islamic Conceptions of Well Being In Estes Richard J Sirgy M Joseph eds The Pursuit of Human Well Being International Handbooks of Quality of Life Springer International Publishing pp 109 131 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 39101 4 5 ISBN 978 3 319 39100 7 Kaczmarek Lukasz Dominik 2023 Positive Psychology In Glăveanu Vlad Petre ed The Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Possible Springer Nature ISBN 978 3 030 90913 0 Katz Leonard D 2016 Pleasure The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Retrieved 18 October 2024 Kauppinen Antti 2015 23 Meaningfulness In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Kekes John 2005 Wisdom In Honderich Ted ed The Oxford Companion to Philosophy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 926479 7 Kelly Brendan 2021 1 Who We are The Science of Happiness The Six Principles of a Happy Life and the Seven Strategies for Achieving It Gill Books ISBN 978 0 7171 9009 6 Kettlewell Nathan Morris Richard W Ho Nick Cobb Clark Deborah A Cripps Sally Glozier Nick 2020 The differential impact of major life events on cognitive and affective wellbeing SSM Population Health 10 doi 10 1016 j ssmph 2019 100533 hdl 10453 139800 PMC 6939089 PMID 31909168 Kim Richard 2015 4 Well Being and Confucianism In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 King Marcie L 2019 The Neural Correlates of Well Being A Systematic Review of the Human Neuroimaging and Neuropsychological Literature Cognitive Affective amp Behavioral Neuroscience 19 4 779 796 doi 10 3758 s13415 019 00720 4 PMC 6713599 PMID 31062291 Krause Peter 2016 Quality of Life and Inequality In Bruni Luigino Porta Pier Luigi eds Handbook of Research Methods and Applications in Happiness and Quality of Life Edward Elgar Publishing ISBN 978 1 78347 117 1 Kubzansky Laura D 2020 Afterword The Future of Well Being In Plough Alonzo L ed Well Being Expanding the Definition of Progress Insights From Practitioners Researchers and Innovators From Around the Globe Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 008051 8 Lauinger William 2015 7 Well Being in the Christian Tradition In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Layard Richard Neve Jan Emmanuel De 2023 Wellbeing Science and Policy Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 009 29895 7 Lazari Radek Katarzyna de 2024 The Philosophy of Pleasure An Introduction Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 351 60594 6 Lee Seung Jong Kim Yunji 2014 Searching for the Meaning of Community Well Being Community Well Being and Community Development Conceptions and Applications Springer ISBN 978 3 319 12421 6 Lee Seung Jong Kim Yunji Phillips Rhonda 2014 Exploring the Intersection of Community Well Being and Community Development Community Well Being and Community Development Conceptions and Applications Springer ISBN 978 3 319 12421 6 Lee Matthew T Kubzansky Laura D VanderWeele Tyler J 2021 Introduction In Lee Matthew T Kubzansky Laura D VanderWeele Tyler J eds Measuring Well being Interdisciplinary Perspectives from the Social Sciences and the Humanities Oxford University Press pp 1 28 ISBN 978 0 19 751253 1 Lin Eden 2015 27 Monism and Pluralism In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Lin Eden 2022 Well being Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Routledge doi 10 4324 9780415249126 L176 1 ISBN 978 0 415 25069 6 Retrieved 16 December 2024 Lips Hilary Gordon Alynn 2023 Women s Well Being In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Luhmann Maike Krasko Julia Terwiel Sophia 2021 Subjective Well Being as a Dynamic Construct In Rauthmann John F ed The Handbook of Personality Dynamics and Processes Academic Press ISBN 978 0 12 813996 7 Luper Steven 2009 The Philosophy of Death Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 88249 1 Maddux James E 2024 1 Subjective Well Being and Life Satisfaction In Maddux James E ed Subjective Well Being and Life Satisfaction A Social Psychological Perspective Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 040 18620 6 Markides Kyriakos S 2000 Quality of Life In Borgatta Edgar F Montgomery Rhonda J V eds Encyclopedia of Sociology 2nd ed Macmillan Reference USA ISBN 978 0 02 864853 8 Marshall Colin 2018 Compassionate Moral Realism Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 253756 0 Mascherini Massimiliano 2023 Well Being at Work In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Mathews Gordon Izquierdo Carolina 2010 Introduction Anthropology Happiness and Well Being In Mathews Gordon Izquierdo Carolina eds Pursuits of happiness well being in anthropological perspective 1st ed Berghahn ISBN 978 1 84545 448 7 McCain Roger A 2008 Welfare Economics In Darity William A ed International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences Vol 9 2nd ed Macmillan Reference ISBN 978 0 02 866117 9 McCormick Miriam Schleifer 2014 Believing Against the Evidence Agency and the Ethics of Belief Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 68268 1 Miettinen Olli S Flegel Kenneth M 2003 Elementary Concepts of Medicine II Health Health fields Public Health Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 9 3 311 313 doi 10 1046 j 1365 2753 2003 00415 x PMID 12895145 Miller Christian 2011 Guilt Embarrassment and the Existence of Character Traits In Brooks Thom ed New Waves in Ethics Springer pp 150 187 ISBN 978 0 230 30588 5 Moore Andrew 2019 Hedonism The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Retrieved 30 December 2024 Muhajarine Nazeem 2023 Health Determinants In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Murphy Dominic Donovan Caitrin Smart Gemma Lucy 2020 Mental Health and Well Being in Philosophy In Sholl Jonathan Rattan Suresh I S eds Explaining Health Across the Sciences Springer Nature ISBN 978 3 030 52663 4 Niemiec Christopher P 2023 Eudaimonic Well Being In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Norman Richard 2005 Happiness In Honderich Ted ed The Oxford Companion to Philosophy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 926479 7 OECD 2011 How s Life Measuring Well being OECD Publishing doi 10 1787 9789264121164 en ISBN 978 92 64 12116 4 OECD 2023 UK Measures of National Well being OECD Retrieved 25 December 2024 OED Staff 2024 Well being n Oxford English Dictionary Online Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 OED 9602520444 O Keefe Tim 2015 3 Hedonistic theories of well being in antiquity In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Oades Lindsay G Mossman Lara 2017 The Science of Wellbeing and Positive Psychology In Slade Mike Oades Lindsay Jarden Aaron eds Wellbeing Recovery and Mental Health Cambridge University Press pp 7 23 ISBN 978 1 107 54305 8 Orsi Francesco 2015 Value Theory Bloomsbury Publishing ISBN 978 1 4725 2408 9 Pallies Daniel 2021 An Honest Look at Hybrid Theories of Pleasure Philosophical Studies 178 3 887 907 doi 10 1007 s11098 020 01464 5 Park Crystal L Kubzansky Laura D Chafouleas Sandra M Davidson Richard J Keltner Dacher Parsafar Parisa Conwell Yeates Martin Michelle Y Hanmer Janel Wang Kuan Hong 2023 Emotional Well Being What It Is and Why It Matters Affective Science 4 1 10 20 doi 10 1007 s42761 022 00163 0 PMC 10104995 PMID 37070009 Pedrotti Jennifer Teramoto Lopez Shane J McDermott Ryon C Snyder C R 2024 Positive Psychology The Scientific and Practical Explorations of Human Strengths SAGE Publications ISBN 978 1 0718 1922 7 Phillips Rhonda Wong Cecilia 2016 Introduction In Phillips Rhonda Wong Cecilia eds Handbook of Community Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 94 024 0878 2 Pritchard Duncan 2013 What Is This Thing Called Knowledge Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 57367 7 Proctor Carmel 2023 Subjective Well Being SWB In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Raibley Jason 2015 28 Atomism and Holism in the Theory of Personal Well Being In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Rashid Tayyab Niemiec Ryan M 2023 Character Strengths In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Rice Christopher M 2015 31 Well Being and Animals In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Rodman George Fry Katherine G 2009 Communication Technology and Psychological Well being Yin Yang and the Golden Mean of Media Effects In Amichai Hamburger Yair ed Technology and Psychological Well being Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 88581 2 Rojas Mariano 2017 The Subjective Object of Well Being Studies Well Being as the Experience of Being Well In Brule Gael Maggino Filomena eds Metrics of Subjective Well Being Limits and Improvements Springer ISBN 978 3 319 61810 4 Rokne Berit Wahl Astrid 2023 Health In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Ryff Carol D 2024 Decades of Scientific Research on Human Happiness In Barclay Katie McMahon Darrin Stearns Peter N eds The Routledge History of Happiness Routledge pp 408 428 doi 10 4324 9781003314462 32 ISBN 978 1 003 31446 2 Ronnow Rasmussen Toni 2015 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Value In Hirose Iwao Olson Jonas eds The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 022143 0 Salagame Kiran Kumar K 2013 Well being from the Hindu Sanatana Dharma Perspective In Boniwell Ilona David Susan A Ayers Amanda Conley eds Oxford Handbook of Happiness Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199557257 013 0029 ISBN 978 0 19 175103 5 Sarch Alex 2015 39 Well Being and the Law In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Saritoprak Seyma N Abu Raiya Hisham 2023 Living the Good Life An Islamic Perspective on Positive Psychology In Davis Edward B Worthington Everett L Schnitker Sarah A eds Handbook of Positive Psychology Religion and Spirituality Springer International Publishing doi 10 1007 978 3 031 10274 5 12 ISBN 978 3 031 10273 8 Schroeder S Andrew 2015 18 Health Disability and Well Being In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Schroeder Mark 2021 Value Theory The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 27 June 2013 Retrieved 26 August 2024 Segall Seth Zuihō Kristeller Jean L 2023 Positive Psychology and Buddhism In Davis Edward B Worthington Everett L Schnitker Sarah A eds Handbook of Positive Psychology Religion and Spirituality Springer International Publishing doi 10 1007 978 3 031 10274 5 14 ISBN 978 3 031 10273 8 Seligman Martin E P 2011 Flourish A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well being Simon and Schuster ISBN 978 1 4391 9076 0 Seligman Martin E P Csikszentmihalyi Mihaly 2000 Positive Psychology An Introduction American Psychologist 55 1 5 14 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 183 6660 doi 10 1037 0003 066x 55 1 5 PMID 11392865 S2CID 14783574 Shaver Robert 2015 8 The Later British Moralists In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Shriver Adam 2014 The Asymmetrical Contributions of Pleasure and Pain to Subjective Well Being Review of Philosophy and Psychology 5 1 135 153 doi 10 1007 s13164 013 0171 2 Singh Kamlesh Raina Mahima Oman Doug 2023 Positive Psychology and Hinduism In Davis Edward B Worthington Everett L Schnitker Sarah A eds Handbook of Positive Psychology Religion and Spirituality Springer International Publishing doi 10 1007 978 3 031 10274 5 13 ISBN 978 3 031 10274 5 Smith Courtland Clay Patricia 2010 Measuring Subjective and Objective Well being Analyses from Five Marine Commercial Fisheries Human Organization 69 2 158 168 doi 10 17730 humo 69 2 b83x6t44878u4782 Steup Matthias Neta Ram 2024 Epistemology The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 21 July 2020 Retrieved 12 July 2024 Sun Rachel C F Shek Daniel T L 2023 Well Being Student In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Tavanti Marco 2023 Developing Sustainability in Organizations A Values Based Approach Springer Nature ISBN 978 3 031 36907 0 Tiberius Valerie 2015 Prudential Value In Hirose Iwao Olson Jonas eds The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 022143 0 Tiberius Valerie Haybron Daniel M 2022 Prudential Psychology Theory Method and Measurement In Vargas Manuel Doris John M eds The Oxford Handbook of Moral Psychology Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 887171 2 Tiwald Justin 2015 5 Well Being and Daoism In Fletcher Guy ed The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well Being Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 40265 7 Toscano Walter N 2018 Relationshipt Between Physical Activity Health and Quality of Life from the Perspective of the Hippocratic Theory In Vega Lia Rodriguez de la Toscano Walter N eds Handbook of Leisure Physical Activity Sports Recreation and Quality of Life Springer pp 293 302 ISBN 978 3 319 75529 8 Tov William Diener Ed 2013 Subjective Wellbeing In Keith Kenneth Dwight ed The encyclopedia of cross cultural psychology Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 118 33989 3 VanderWeele Tyler J 2021 Measures of Community Well Being A Template In Lee Matthew T Kubzansky Laura D VanderWeele Tyler J eds Measuring Well being Interdisciplinary Perspectives from the Social Sciences and the Humanities Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 751253 1 Veenhoven Ruut 1996 The Study of Life Satisfaction A Comparative Study of Satisfaction with Life in Europe PDF Eotvos University Press ISBN 978 963 463 081 4 Veenhoven Ruut 2008 Sociological Theories of Subjective Well Being In Eid Michael Larsen Randy J eds The Science of Subjective Well Being Guilford Press ISBN 978 1 60623 073 2 Veenhoven Ruut 2023a Freedom and Quality of Life In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Veenhoven Ruut 2023b Well Being of Nations In Maggino Filomena ed Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well Being Research Springer ISBN 978 3 031 17298 4 Vitterso Joar 2012 Hedonics In Lopez Shane J ed The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 118 34467 5 Volkov A D Tishkov S V Karginova Gubinova V V Kolesnikov N G 2023 Environmental Well Being of the Russian Arctic Regions Official Data and Population Estimates Regional Research of Russia 13 1 S141 S155 doi 10 1134 S2079970523600154 Voukelatou Vasiliki Gabrielli Lorenzo Miliou Ioanna Cresci Stefano Sharma Rajesh Tesconi Maurizio Pappalardo Luca 2021 Measuring objective and subjective well being dimensions and data sources International Journal of Data Science and Analytics 11 4 279 309 doi 10 1007 s41060 020 00224 2 hdl 11568 1053970 Warren Samantha 2010 What s Wrong with Being Positive In Linley P Alex Harrington Susan Garcea Nicola eds Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work Oxford University Press pp 313 322 ISBN 978 0 19 533544 6 Weijers Dan Hedonism Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved 13 October 2024 Western Mark Tomaszewski Wojtek 2016 Subjective Wellbeing Objective Wellbeing and Inequality in Australia PLOS ONE 11 10 e0163345 Bibcode 2016PLoSO 1163345W doi 10 1371 journal pone 0163345 PMC 5047468 PMID 27695042 White Nicholas P 2008 A Brief History of Happiness John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 470 79808 9 Yalom Irvin D 2020 Existential Psychotherapy HarperCollins ISBN 978 1 5416 4744 2 Yamaguchi Mami Halberstadt Jamin 2011 It s All About Me Maladaptive Self focused Attention as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Extrinsic Goals and Well Being In Brdar Ingrid ed The Human Pursuit of Well Being A Cultural Approach Springer Science amp Business Media ISBN 978 94 007 1375 8 Zelenski John M 2020 Positive psychology the science of well being Sage ISBN 978 1 4739 0214 5 External linksWikimedia Commons has media related to Well being Look up well being in Wiktionary the free dictionary