The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God (Allāh). It is organized in 114 chapters (surah, pl. suwer) which consist of individual verses (āyah). Besides its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature, and has significantly influenced the Arabic language. It is the object of a modern field of academic research known as Quranic studies.
| Quran | |
|---|---|
| Arabic: ٱلْقُرْآن, romanized: al-Qurʾān | |
 Two folios of the Birmingham Quran manuscript, an early manuscript written in Hijazi script likely dated within Muhammad's lifetime between c. 568–645 | |
| Information | |
| Religion | Islam |
| Language | Classical Arabic |
| Period | 610–632 CE |
| Chapters | 114 (list) See Surah |
| Verses | 6,348 (including the basmala) 6,236 (excluding the basmala) See Āyah |
| Full text | |
 Quran at Arabic Wikisource | |
| Quran at English Wikisource | |
Muslims believe the Quran was orally revealed by God to the final Islamic prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning on the Laylat al-Qadr, when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad's most important miracle, a proof of his prophethood, and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to the first Islamic prophet Adam, including the holy books of the Torah, Psalms, and Gospel in Islam.
The Quran is believed by Muslims to be God's own divine speech providing a complete code of conduct across all facets of life. This has led Muslim theologians to fiercely debate whether the Quran was "created or uncreated." According to tradition, several of Muhammad's companions served as scribes, recording the revelations. Shortly after Muhammad's death, the Quran was compiled on the order of the first caliph Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) by the companions, who had written down or memorized parts of it. Caliph Uthman (r. 644–656) established a standard version, now known as the Uthmanic codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with some differences in meaning.
The Quran assumes the reader's familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical and apocryphal texts. It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance for humankind (2:185). It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence.
Supplementing the Quran with explanations for some cryptic Quranic narratives, and rulings that also provide the basis for Islamic law in most denominations of Islam, are hadiths—oral and written traditions believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad. During prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz. Ideally, verses are recited with a special kind of prosody reserved for this purpose called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers. In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, Muslims rely on exegesis, or commentary rather than a direct translation of the text.
Etymology and meaning
The word qur'ān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (maṣdar) of the Arabic verb qara'a (قرأ) meaning 'he read' or 'he recited'. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā (ܩܪܝܢܐ), which refers to 'scripture reading' or 'lesson'. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qara'a itself. Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the 'act of reciting', as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it (qur'ānahu)."
In other verses, the word refers to 'an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]'. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al-qur'ān is recited, listen to it and keep silent." The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.
The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qur'ān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb ('book'), āyah ('sign'), and sūrah ('scripture'); the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al-), the word is referred to as the waḥy ('revelation'), that which has been "sent down" (tanzīl) at intervals. Other related words include: dhikr ('remembrance'), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning; and ḥikmah ('wisdom'), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.
The Quran describes itself as 'the discernment' (al-furqān), 'the mother book' (umm al-kitāb), 'the guide' (huda), 'the wisdom' (hikmah), 'the remembrance' (dhikr), and 'the revelation' (tanzīl; 'something sent down', signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place). Another term is al-kitāb ('The Book'), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term mus'haf ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books.
History
Prophetic era
Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in 610 CE in the Cave of Hira on the Night of Power during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to hadith (traditions ascribed to Muhammad) and Muslim history, after Muhammad and his followers immigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the Quraysh who were taken prisoners at the Battle of Badr regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones, and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most suras (also usually transliterated as Surah) were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632 at age 61–62. There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.
Sahih al-Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and A'isha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)." Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power," the one who "grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer." The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer, or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.
The Quran describes Muhammad as "ummi", which is traditionally interpreted as 'illiterate', but the meaning is rather more complex. Medieval commentators such as al-Tabari (d. 923) maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as W. Montgomery Watt prefer the second meaning of ummi—they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts.
The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the year 10 A.H., a date that roughly corresponds to February or March 632. The verse was revealed after the Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm.
According to Islamic tradition, the Quran was revealed to Muhammad in seven different ahruf (meaning letters; however, it could mean dialects, forms, styles or modes). Most Islamic scholars agree that these different ahruf are the same Quran revealed in seven different Arabic dialects and that they do not change the meaning of the Quran, the purpose of which was to make the Quran easy for recitation and memorization among the different Arab tribes. While Sunni Muslims believe in the seven ahruf, some Shia reject the idea of seven Quranic variants. A common misconception is that the seven ahruf and the qira'at are the same.
Compilation and preservation
Following Muhammad's death in 632, a number of his companions who memorized the Quran were killed in the Battle of al-Yamama by Musaylima. The first caliph, Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), subsequently decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved.Zayd ibn Thabit (d. 655) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle". Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones (collectively known as suhuf, any written work containing divine teachings) and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. In 644, Muhammad's widow Hafsa bint Umar was entrusted with the manuscript until the third caliph, Uthman (r. 644–656), requested the standard copy from her. According to historian Michael Cook, early Muslim narratives about the collection and compilation of the Quran sometimes contradict themselves: "Most ... make Uthman little more than an editor, but there are some in which he appears very much a collector, appealing to people to bring him any bit of the Quran they happen to possess." Some accounts also "suggest that in fact the material" Abu Bakr worked with "had already been assembled", which since he was the first caliph, would mean they were collected when Muhammad was still alive.
Around the 650s, the Islamic expansion beyond the Arabian Peninsula and into Persia, the Levant and North Africa, as well as the use of the seven ahruf, had caused some confusion and differences in the pronunciation of the Qur'an, and conflict was arising between different Arab tribes due to some claiming to be more superior to other Arab tribes and non-Arabs based on dialect, which Uthman noticed. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard text of the Quran. Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death in 632, the complete Quran was committed to written form as the Uthmanic codex. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed. and the six other ahruf of the Qur'an fell out of use. The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.
Qira'at which is a way and method of reciting the Qur'an was developed sometime afterwards. There are ten canonical recitations and they are not to be confused with ahruf. Shias recite the Quran according to the qira'at of Hafs on authority of ‘Asim, which is the prevalent qira'at in the Islamic world and believe that the Quran was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime. It is claimed that the Shia had more than 1,000 hadiths ascribed to the Shia Imams which indicate the distortion of the Quran and according to Etan Kohlberg, this belief about Quran was common among Shiites in the early centuries of Islam. In his view, Ibn Babawayh was the first major Twelver author "to adopt a position identical to that of the Sunnis" and the change was a result of the "rise to power of the Sunni 'Abbasid caliphate," whence belief in the corruption of the Quran became untenable vis-a-vis the position of Sunni "orthodoxy". Alleged distortions have been carried out to remove any references to the rights of Ali, the Imams and their supporters and the disapproval of enemies, such as Umayyads and Abbasids.
Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas'ud's and Ubay ibn Ka'b's codex, none of which exist today.
Academic research
Studies on the Qur'an rarely went beyond textual criticism.[when?] Until the early 1970s, non-Muslim scholars of Islam —while not accepting traditional explanations for divine intervention— accepted the above-mentioned traditional origin story in most details.
Rasm: "ٮسم الله الرحمں الرحىم"
University of Chicago professor Fred Donner states that:
[T]here was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission.… After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts—despite their numerous variants—seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established.
Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based.
In 1972, in a mosque in the city of Sana'a, Yemen, manuscripts "consisting of 12,000 pieces" were discovered that were later proven to be the oldest Quranic text known to exist at the time. The Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsests, manuscript pages from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to the scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text (scriptio inferior) is still barely visible. Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability. The German scholar Gerd R. Puin has been investigating these Quran fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to the early part of the 8th century. Puin has noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography, and suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one. It is also possible that the content of the Quran itself may provides data regarding the date of writing of the text. For example, sources based on some archaeological data give the construction date of Masjid al-Haram, an architectural work mentioned 16 times in the Quran, as 78 AH an additional finding that sheds light on the evolutionary history of the Quran mentioned, which is known to continue even during the time of Hajjaj, in a similar situation that can be seen with al-Aksa, though different suggestions have been put forward to explain.
In 2015, a single folio of a very early Quran, dating back to 1370 years earlier, was discovered in the library of the University of Birmingham, England. According to the tests carried out by the Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, "with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645". The manuscript is written in Hijazi script, an early form of written Arabic. This possibly was one of the earliest extant exemplars of the Quran, but as the tests allow a range of possible dates, it cannot be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest. Saudi scholar Saud al-Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later. The Birmingham manuscript caused excitement amongst believers because of its potential overlapping with the dominant tradition over the lifetime of Muhammad c. 570 to 632 CE and used as evidence to support conventional wisdom and to refute the revisionists' views that expresses findings and views different from the traditional approach to the early history of the Quran and Islam.
Contents
The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of God and the resurrection. Narratives of the early prophets, ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad's time, charity and prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. The style of the Quran has been called "allusive", with commentaries needed to explain what is being referred to—"events are referred to, but not narrated; disagreements are debated without being explained; people and places are mentioned, but rarely named." While tafsir in Islamic sciences expresses the effort to understand the implied and implicit expressions of the Quran, fiqh refers to the efforts to expand the meaning of expressions, especially in the verses related to the provisions, as well as understanding it.
Quranic studies state that, in the historical context, the content of the Quran is related to Rabbinic, Jewish-Christian, Syriac Christian and Hellenic literature, as well as pre-Islamic Arabia. Many places, subjects and mythological figures in the culture of Arabs and many nations in their historical neighbourhoods, especially Judeo-Christian stories, are included in the Quran with small allusions, references or sometimes small narratives such as jannāt ʿadn, jahannam, Seven Sleepers, Queen of Sheba etc. However, some philosophers and scholars such as Mohammed Arkoun, who emphasize the mythological content of the Quran, are met with rejectionist attitudes in Islamic circles.
The stories of Yusuf and Zulaikha, Moses, Family of Amram (parents of Mary according to the Quran) and mysterious heroDhul-Qarnayn ("the man with two horns") who built a barrier against Gog and Magog that will remain until the end of time are more detailed and longer stories. Apart from semi-historical events and characters such as King Solomon and David, about Jewish history as well as the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, tales of the hebrew prophets accepted in Islam, such as Creation, the Flood, struggle of Abraham with Nimrod, sacrifice of his son occupy a wide place in the Quran.
Creation and God
The central theme of the Quran is monotheism. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., Quran 2:20, 2:29, 2:255). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., Quran 13:16, 2:253, 50:38, etc.). All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly. The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?"
Even though Muslims do not doubt about the existence and unity of God, they may have adopted different attitudes that have changed and developed throughout history regarding his nature (attributes), names and relationship with creation. Rabb is an Arabic word to refers to God meaning Lord and the Quran cites in several places as in the Al-Fatiha; "All Praise and Gratitude is due to God, Lord of all the Universe". Mustafa Öztürk points out that the first Muslims believed that this god lived in the sky with the following words of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal: "Whoever says that Allah is everywhere is a heretic, an infidel. He should be invited to repent, but if he does not, be killed." This understanding changes later and gives way to the understanding that "God cannot be assigned a place and He is everywhere." Also actions and attributes suh as coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sadness etc. similar to humans used for this God in the Quran were considered mutashabihat -"no one knows its interpretation except God" (Quran 3:7)- by later scholars stating that God was free from resemblance to humans in any way.
Prophets
In Islam, God speaks to people called prophets through a kind of revelation called wahy, or through angels.(42:51) nubuwwah (Arabic: نبوة 'prophethood') is seen as a duty imposed by God on individuals who have some characteristics such as intelligence, honesty, fortitude and justice: "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty."[citation needed]
Islam regards Abraham as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad via Ishmael and mentioned in 35 chapters of the Quran, more often than any other biblical personage apart from Moses. Muslims regard him as a hanif, an archetype of the perfect Muslim, and revered prophet and builder of the Kaaba in Mecca. The Quran consistently refers to Islam as 'the religion of Abraham' (millat Ibrahim). In Islam, Eid-al-Adha is celebrated to commemorate Abraham's attempt to sacrifice his son by surrendering in line with his dream,(As-Saaffat; 100–107) which he accepted as the will of God.
In Islam, Moses is a prominent prophet and messenger of God and the most frequently mentioned individual in the Quran, with his name being mentioned 136 times and his life being narrated and recounted more than that of any other prophet.
Stories of the prophets in the Quran often revolve around a certain pattern, according to which a prophet is sent to a group of people, who then reject or attack him, and ultimately suffer extinction as God's punishment. However, the Quran, given its paraenetic character, does not offer a full narrative; but rather offers a parabolic reference to the doom of previous generations, assuming the audience is familiar with the told stories.
Ethico-religious concepts
While belief in God and obedience to the prophets are the main emphasis in the prophetic stories, there are also non-prophetic stories in the Quran that emphasize the importance of humility and having profound-inner knowledge (hikmah) besides trusting in God. This is the main theme in the stories of Khidr, Luqman and Dhul Qarnayn. According to the later ascriptions to these stories, it is possible for those with this knowledge and divine support to teach the prophets (Khidr-Moses story Quran 18:65–82) and employ jinn (Dhul Qarnayn). Those who "spend their wealth" on people who are in need because they devoted their lives to the way of Allah and whose situation is unknown because they are ashamed to ask, will be rewarded by Allah. (Al Baqara; 272-274) In the story of Qārūn, the person who avoids searching for the afterlife with his wealth and becomes arrogant will be punished, arrogance befits only God. (Al Mutakabbir) Characters of the stories can be closed-mythical, (Khidr) demi-mythologic or combined characters, and it can also be seen that they are Islamized. While some believe he was a prophet, some researchers equate Luqman with the Alcmaeon of Croton or Aesop.
Commanding ma’ruf and forbidding munkar (Ar. ٱلْأَمْرُ بِٱلْمَعْرُوفِ وَٱلنَّهْيُ عَنِ ٱلْمُنْكَرِ) is repeated or referred to in nearly 30 verses in different contexts in the Quran and is an important part of Islamist / jihadist indoctrination today, as well as Shiite teachings.
Although a common translation of the phrase is "Enjoining good and forbidding evil", the words used by Islamic philosophy determining good and evil in discourses are "husn" and "qubh". The word ma’ruf literally means "known" or what is approved because of its familiarity for a certain society and its antithesis munkar means what is disapproved because it is unknown and extraneous.
The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic law (sharia). Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the salat and fasting in the month of Ramadan. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration. The term chosen for charity, zakat, literally means purification implies that it is a self-purification. In fiqh, the term fard is used for clear imperative provisions based on the Quran. However, it is not possible to say that the relevant verses are understood in the same way by all segments of Islamic commentators; For example, Hanafis accept 5 daily prayers as fard. However, some religious groups such as Quranists and Shiites, who do not doubt that the Quran existing today is a religious source, infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray 2 or 3 times, not 5 times. About six verses adress to the way a woman should dress when in public; Some Muslim scholars consider this verse referring to the Hijab while others to clothings in general.
Research shows that the rituals in the Quran, along with laws such as qisas and tax (zakat), developed as an evolution of pre-Islamic Arabian rituals. Arabic words meaning pilgrimage (hajj), prayer (salāt) and charity (zakāt) can be seen in pre-Islamic Safaitic-Arabic inscriptions, and this continuity can be observed in many details, especially in hajj and umrah.
As a source of law and judgment
A small number of verses in the Quran are about general rules of governance, inheritance, marriage, crime and punishment. Although the Quran does not impose a specific legal-management system, it emphasizes custom in nearly 40 verses and commands justice. (An-Nahl; 90) The practices prescribed in the Quran are considered as reflections of contextual legal understandings, as can be clearly seen in some examples such as Qisas and Diya. The following statement in the Quran is thought to be the general rule of testimony in Islamic jurisprudence, except for crime and punishment - for example, debt, shopping, etc.; O believers! When you contract a loan for a fixed period of time, commit it to writing....with justice. Call upon two of your men to witness. If two men cannot be found, then one man and two women of your choice will witness so if one of the women forgets the other may remind her. .[Quran 4:11]
As a different example, in the necklace story of Aisha, called Asbab al-Nuzul for surah An-Nur :11-20 four witnesses were required for the accusation of adultery. In addition, those who made accusations that did not meet the specified conditions would be punished with 80 lashes. The jurisprudence of later periods stipulates that witnesses must be men, covering all hadd crimes and people who did not have credibility and honesty in society (slaves, non-adl; sinners, infidels) could not testify against believers. In addition, the Islamic judiciary did not require proof of the issues defined as tazir.: 45 The statement in the Qur'an that determines the status of slaves in community is; Ma malakat aymanuhum meaning "those whom your right hands possess". The widespread use of slavery in the Islamic world continued until the last century, and the unrestricted sexual use of female slaves, with a few exceptions such as they couldn't be loaned out in traditional islamic jurisprudence while stated today often that sharia provides many rights to slaves and aims to eradicate slavery over time.
Sharia is a collection of laws and rules created by scholars' interpretations on the Qur'an and hadith collections, and has been developed over the centuries, changing according to different geographies and societies. Fiqh sects are schools of understanding that try to determine the actions that people should do or avoid based on the Quran and hadiths. The place of hadiths in legislation is controversial; for example, in the Hanafi sect, in order to claim that something is obligatory, that issue must be clearly expressed in the Quran. Some of these results may also indicate exaggeration of statements, generalizations taken out of context, and imperative broadening of scope. Of the few criminal cases listed as crimes in the Quran, only a few of them are punished by the classical books of sharia as determined by the verses of the Quran and are called hudud laws. How the verse Al-Ma'idah 33, which describes the crime of hirabah, should be understood is a matter of debate even today. The verse talks about the punishment of criminals by killing, hanging, having their hands and feet cut off on opposite sides, and being exiled from the earth, in response to an -abstract- crime such as "fighting against Allah and His Messenger". Expanding or narrowing the conditions and scope of this crime according to new situations and universal legal standards are issues that continue to be discussed today such as punishing in addition to rebellion against the legitimate government on "concrete sequential criminal acts" ie massacre, robbery and rape as preconditions.
Although the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its rules are largely preserved only in family law and criminal law in some. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought calls by Islamic movements for the full implementation of sharia, including corporal punishment such as stoning for adultery, through a variety of propaganda methods, from civic political activities to terrorism.
Eschatology
The doctrine of the last day and eschatology (the final fate of the universe) may be considered the second great doctrine of the Quran. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time. The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection.
In the Quran belief in the afterlife is often referred in conjunction with belief in God: "Believe in God and the last day" emphasizing what is considered impossible is easy in the sight of God. A number of suras such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and warn people to be prepared for the "imminent" day referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction', 'the Day of the Gathering' or 'the Day of the Meeting'.
Text and arrangement
The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, known as a sūrah. Each sūrah consists of verses, known as āyāt, which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from sūrah to sūrah. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the most popular Hafs Quran is 6,236; however, the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately. According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 stems, 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots.
Chapters are classified as Meccan or Medinan, depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina on traditional account. However, a sūrah classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Sūrah names are derived from a name or a character in the text, or from the first letters or words of the sūrah. Chapters are not arranged in chronological order, rather the chapters appear to be arranged roughly in order of decreasing size. Each sūrah except the ninth starts with the Bismillah (بِسْمِ ٱللَّٰهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ), an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the Bismillah in the Quran, due to its presence in Quran 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.
The Muqattaʿat (Arabic: حروف مقطعات ḥurūf muqaṭṭaʿāt, 'disjoined letters, disconnected letters'; also 'mysterious letters') are combinations of between one and five Arabic letters figuring at the beginning of 29 out of the 114 chapters of the Quran just after the basmala. The letters are also known as fawātih (فواتح), or 'openers', as they form the opening verse of their respective suras. Four surahs are named for their muqatta'at: Ṭāʾ-Hāʾ, Yāʾ-Sīn, Ṣād, and Qāf. Various theories have been put forward; they were a secret communication language between Allah and Muhammad, abbreviations of various names or attributes of Allah, symbols of the versions of the Quran belonging to different companions, elements of a secret coding system, or expressions containing esoteric meanings. Some researchers associate them with hymns used in Syrian Christianity. The phrases must have been part of these hymns or abbreviations of frequently repeated introductory phrases. Some of them, such as Nun, were used in symbolic meanings.
In addition of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 juz' (plural ajzāʼ) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two ḥizb (plural aḥzāb), and each hizb subdivided into four rubʻ al-ahzab. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, manzil (plural manāzil), for it to be recited in a week. A different structure is provided by semantic units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten āyāt each. Such a section is called a ruku.
Literary style
The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the suras and verses employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims[who?] assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.
The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose; however, this description runs the risk of failing to convey the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Sura 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.
The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net. The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and repetitiousness.Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression—its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase—is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated. Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device.
A text is self-referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild, the Quran demonstrates this metatextuality by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages where the Quran refers to itself as revelation (tanzil), remembrance (dhikr), news (naba'), criterion (furqan) in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?"), or in the frequent appearance of the "Say" tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g., "Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance'", "Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?'"). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras.
Inimitability
In Islam, ’i‘jāz (Arabic: اَلْإِعْجَازُ), "inimitability challenge" of the Qur'an in sense of feṣāḥa and belagha (both eloquence and rhetoric) is the doctrine which holds that the Qur’ān has a miraculous quality, both in content and in form, that no human speech can match. According to this, the Qur'an is a miracle and its inimitability is the proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. The literary quality of the Qur'an has been praised by Muslim scholars and by many non-Muslim scholars. The doctrine of the miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.
The Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature. The emergence of the Qur’ān was an oral and aural poetic experience; the aesthetic experience of reciting and hearing the Qur’ān is often regarded as one of the main reasons behind conversion to Islam in the early days.Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry was an element of challenge, propaganda and warfare, and those who incapacitated their opponents from doing the same in feṣāḥa and belagha socially honored, as could be seen on Mu'allaqat poets. The etymology of the word "shā'ir; (poet)" connotes the meaning of a man of inspirational knowledge, of unseen powers. `To the early Arabs poetry was ṣihr ḥalāl and the poet was a genius who had supernatural communications with the jinn or spirits, the muses who inspired him.’ Although pre-Islamic Arabs gave poets status associated with suprahuman beings, soothsayers and prophecies were seen as persons of lower status. Contrary to later hurufic and recent scientific prophecy claims, traditional miracle statements about the Quran hadn't focused on prophecies, with a few exceptions like the Byzantine victory over the Persians in wars that continued for hundreds of years with mutual victories and defeats.
The first works about the ’i‘jāz of the Quran began to appear in the 9th century in the Mu'tazila circles, which emphasized only its literary aspect, and were adopted by other religious groups. According to grammarian the eloquence contained in the Quran consisted of tashbīh, istiʿāra, taǧānus, mubālaġa, concision, clarity of speech (bayān), and talāʾum. He also added other features developed by himself; the free variation of themes (taṣrīf al-maʿānī), the implication content (taḍmīn) of the expressions and the rhyming closures (fawāṣil). The most famous works on the doctrine of inimitability are two medieval books by the grammarian Al Jurjani (d. 1078 CE), Dala’il al-i'jaz ('the Arguments of Inimitability') and Asraral-balagha ('the Secrets of Eloquence'). Al Jurjani believed that Qur'an's eloquence must be a certain special quality in the manner of its stylistic arrangement and composition or a certain special way of joining words.Angelika Neuwirth lists the factors that led to the emergence of the doctrine of ’i‘jāz: The necessity of explaining some challenging verses in the Quran; In the context of the emergence of the theory of "proofs of prophecy" (dâ'il an-nubuwwa) in Islamic theology, proving that the Quran is a work worthy of the emphasized superior place of Muhammad in the history of the prophets, thus gaining polemical superiority over Jews and Christians; Preservation of Arab national pride in the face of confrontation with the Iranian Shu'ubiyya movement, etc. Orientalist scholars Theodor Nöldeke, Friedrich Schwally and John Wansbrough pointing out linguistic defects held a similar opinions on Qur'anic text as careless and imperfect.
Significance in Islam
Quran says, "We have sent down the Quran in truth, and with the truth it has come down" and frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained. The Quran speaks of a written pre-text that records God's speech before it is sent down, the "preserved tablet" that is the basis of the belief in fate also, and Muslims believe that the Quran was sent down or started to be sent down on the Laylat al-Qadr.
Revered by pious Muslims as "the holy of holies", whose sound moves some to "tears and ecstasy", it is the physical symbol of the faith, the text often used as a charm on occasions of birth, death, marriage. Traditionally, before starting to read the Quran, ablution is performed, one seeks refuge in Allah from the accursed Satan, and the reading begins by mentioning the names of Allah, Rahman and Rahim together known as basmala. Consequently,
It must never rest beneath other books, but always on top of them, one must never drink or smoke when it is being read aloud, and it must be listened to in silence. It is a talisman against disease and disaster.
According to Islam, the Quran is the word of God (Kalām Allāh). Its nature and whether it was created became a matter of fierce debate among religious scholars; and with the involvement of the political authority in the discussions, some Muslim religious scholars who stood against the political stance faced religious persecution during the caliph al-Ma'mun period and the following years.
Muslims believe that the present Quranic text corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad, and according to their interpretation of Quran 15:9, it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be its guardians"). Muslims consider the Quran to be a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. For this reason, in traditional Islamic societies, great importance was given to children memorizing the Quran, and those who memorized the entire Quran were honored with the title of hafiz. Even today, millions of Muslims frequently refer to the Quran to justify their actions and desires", and see it as the source of scientific knowledge, though some refer to it as weird or pseudoscience.
Muslims believe the Quran to be God's literal words, a complete code of life, the final revelation to humanity, a work of divine guidance revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. On the other hand it is believed in Muslim community that full understanding of it can only be possible with the depths obtained in the basic and religious sciences that the ulema (imams in shia) might access, as "heirs of the prophets". For this reason, direct reading of the Quran or applications based on its literal translations are considered problematic except for some groups such as Quranists thinking that the Quran is a complete and clear book; and tafsir / fiqh are brought fore to correct understandings in it. With a classical approach, scholars will discuss verses of the Qur'an in context called asbab al-nuzul in islamic literature, as well as language and linguistics; will pass it through filters such as muhkam and mutashabih, nasıkh and abrogated; will open the closed expressions and try to guide the believers. There is no standardization in Qur'an translations, and interpretations range from traditional scholastic, to literalist-salafist understandings to Esoteric-Sufist, to modern and secular exegesis according to the personal scientific depth and tendencies of scholars.
In worship
Surah Al-Fatiha, the first chapter of the Quran, is recited in full in every rakat of salah and on other occasions. This sura, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited surah of the Quran:
بِسْمِ ٱللَّهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ | In the Name of Allah the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful. |
| —Quran 1:1-7 | —Sahih International English translation |
Other sections of the Quran of choice are also read in daily prayers. Sura Al-Ikhlāṣ is second in frequency of Qur'an recitation, for according to many early authorities, Muhammad said that Ikhlāṣ is equivalent to one-third of the whole Quran.
قُلۡ هُوَ ٱللَّهُ أَحَدٌ | Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ "He is God—One ˹and Indivisible˺; |
| —Surah Al-Ikhlāṣ 112:1-4 | —The Clear Quran English translation |
Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims, and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran 56:79 ("none shall touch but those who are clean"), some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water (wudu or ghusl) before touching a copy of the Quran, although this view is not universal.
Worn-out and old copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water. While praying, the Quran is only recited in Arabic.
In Islam, most intellectual disciplines, including Islamic theology, philosophy, mysticism and jurisprudence, have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings. Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called ajr, thawab, or hasanat.
In Islamic art
The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination. The Quran is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as mosque lamps, metal work, pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums.
-
Calligraphy, 18th century, Brooklyn Museum. -
Quranic inscriptions, Bara Gumbad mosque, Delhi, India. -
Typical mosque lamp, of enamelled glass, with the Ayat an-Nur or "Verse of Light" (24:35). -
Quran page decoration art, Ottoman period. -
Quranic verses, Shahizinda mausoleum, Samarkand, Uzbekistan. -
The leaves from Quran written in gold and contoured with brown ink with a horizontal format suited to classical Kufic calligraphy, which became common under the early Abbasid caliphs. -
9th-century Quran in the Reza Abbasi Museum -
Shikasta nastaliq script, 18th–19th centuries
Interpretation
Tafsir (Arabic: تفسير, romanized: tafsīr [tafˈsiːr]; English: explanation) refers to an exegesis, or commentary, of the Quran. An author of a tafsir is a mufassir (Arabic: مُفسّر; plural: Arabic: مفسّرون, romanized: mufassirūn). A Quranic tafsir attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding and conviction of God's will in Islam.
Principally, a tafsir deals with the issues of linguistics, jurisprudence, and theology. In terms of perspective and approach, tafsir can be broadly divided into two main categories, namely tafsir bi-al-ma'thur (lit. received tafsir), which is transmitted from the early days of Islam through the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions, and tafsir bi-al-ra'y (lit. tafsir by opinion), which is arrived through personal reflection or independent rational thinking.
There are different characteristics and traditions for each of the tafsirs representing respective schools and doctrines, such as Sunni Islam, Shia Islam, and Sufism. There are also general distinctions between classic tafsirs compiled by authoritative figures of Muslim scholarship during the formative ages of Islam, and modern tafsir which seeks to address a wider audience, including the common people.
Exoteric and Esoteric interpretations (ta'wil)
Commentaries dealing with the zahir ('outward aspects') of the text are called tafsir, (explanation) and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil ('interpretation'). Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God. Esoteric or Sufi interpretation relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (batin) and metaphysical dimensions of existence and consciousness. According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, and are allusions (isharat) rather than explanations (tafsir). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of writers.
Shias and Sunnis as well as some Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect.: 7 In contrast, Quranic literalism, followed by Salafis and Zahiris, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad:
The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning. So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings.: 7
According to esoteric interpreters, the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body. Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because Gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.: 13
Notable Sufi commentaries
One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is al-Sulami's (d. 1021) book named Haqaiq al-Tafsir ('Truths of Exegesis') is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), (d. 1193), (d. 1209) and Al-Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami's books plus the author's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Al-Maybudi (d. 1135) kashf al-asrar ('the unveiling of the secrets').Rumi (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book Mathnawi which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran. Simnani (d. 1336) tried reconciliation of God's manifestation through and in the physical world notions with the sentiments of Sunni Islam. Ismail Hakki Bursevi's (d. 1725) work ruh al-Bayan ('the Spirit of Elucidation') is a voluminous exegesis written in Arabic, combines the author's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali).
Translations
Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form. An Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation difficult. Moreover, one of the biggest difficulties in understanding the Quran for those who do not know its language in the face of shifts in linguistic usage over the centuries is semantic translations (meanings) that include the translator's contributions to the relevant text instead of literal ones. Although the author's contributions are often bracketed and shown separately, the author's individual tendencies may also come to the fore in making sense of the main text. These studies contain reflections and even distortions caused by the region, sect, education, ideology and knowledge of the people who made them, and efforts to reach the real content are drowned in the details of volumes of commentaries. These distortions can manifest themselves in many areas of belief and practices.
Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran. In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.[citation needed] The Quran has been translated into most African, Asian, and European languages. The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian, who translated surat al-Fatiha into Persian during the seventh century. Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 in Alwar (Sindh, India, now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.
The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian. The Samanid king, Mansur I (961–976), ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al-Tabari, originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian. In the 12th century, Najm al-Din Abu Hafs al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times. In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known. In 2010, the Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.
Robert of Ketton's 1143 translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, was the first into a Western language (Latin).Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of L'Alcoran de Mahomet (1647) by Andre du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims. Popular modern English translations by Muslims include The Oxford World Classic's translation by Muhammad Abdel Haleem, The Clear Quran by Mustafa Khattab, Sahih International's translation, among various others. As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, Abdullah Yusuf Ali and Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular ye and thou instead of the more common you.
The oldest Gurmukhi translation of the Quran Sharif has been found in village of Moga district of Indian Punjab which was printed in 1911.
-
1091 Quranic text in bold script with Persian translation and commentary in a lighter script -
Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era -
The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: L'Alcoran de Mahomet, André du Ryer, 1647 -
Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran -
Verses 33 and 34 of surat Yā Sīn in this Chinese translation of the Quran
Recitation
Rules of recitation
The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.
In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation, reciters follow a program of training with a qualified teacher. The two most popular texts used as references for tajwid rules are Matn al-Jazariyyah by Ibn al-Jazari and Tuhfat al-Atfal by Sulayman al-Jamzuri.
The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters, like El Minshawy, Al-Hussary, Abdul Basit, Mustafa Ismail, were highly influential in the development of current styles of recitation.: 83 Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah of Jakarta. Today, crowds fill auditoriums for public Quran recitation competitions.
There are two types of recitation:
- Murattal is at a slower pace, used for study and practice.
- Mujawwad refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the mujawwad reciter seeks to involve the listeners.
Variant readings
The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant. According to Melchert (2008), the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line. Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes, including internal vowels, long vowels, gemination (shaddah), assimilation and alternation.
It is generally stated that there are small differences between readings. However, these small changes may also include differences that may lead to serious differences in Islam, ranging from the definition of God to practices such as the formal conditions of ablution.
The first Quranic manuscripts lacked marks, enabling multiple possible recitations to be conveyed by the same written text. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, Ibn Mujāhid, is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Damascus. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven ahruf. Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d. 796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud (Kufa, d. 745) and Nafiʽ al-Madani (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Quran of Cairo uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran. Occasionally, an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir ad-Dimashqi. Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of himsi region.
According to Ibn Taymiyyah vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds (tashkeel) were introduced into the text of the Qur'an during the lifetimes of the last Sahabah.
Writing and printing
Writing
Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in Ḥijāzī-typescript. The Hijazi style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as Kufic scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles. Beginning in the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the naskh, muhaqqaq, rayḥānī and, on rarer occasions, the thuluth script. Naskh was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Iberia, the Maghribī style was popular. More distinct is the Bihari script which was used solely in the north of India. Nastaʻlīq style was also rarely used in Persian world.
In the beginning, the Quran was not written with dots or tashkeel. These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the Sahabah. Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or juzʼ. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.
Whilst the majority of Islamic scribes were men, some women also worked as scholars and copyists; one such woman who made a copy of this text was the Moroccan jurist, Amina, bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif.
-
Folio from the "Blue" Quran at the Brooklyn Museum -
Kufic script, eighth or ninth century -
Maghribi script, 13th–14th centuries -
Muhaqqaq script, 14th–15th centuries
Printing
Wood-block printing of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century.
Arabic movable type printing was ordered by Pope Julius II (r. 1503–1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians. The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537–1538 for the Ottoman market by Paganino Paganini and Alessandro Paganini. But this Quran was not used as it contained a large number of errors. Two more editions include the Hinckelmann edition published by the pastor Abraham Hinckelmann in Hamburg in 1694, and the edition by the Italian priest Ludovico Maracci in Padua in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary.
Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from Muslim legal scholars: printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1726—initially, even on penalty of death. The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non-religious texts only upon the request of Ibrahim Muteferrika, who printed his first book in 1729. Except for books in Hebrew and European languages, which were unrestricted, very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century.
In 1786, Catherine the Great of Russia, sponsored a printing press for "Tatar and Turkish orthography" in Saint Petersburg, with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types. A Quran was printed with this press in 1787, reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg, and in 1803 in Kazan. The first edition printed in Iran appeared in Tehran (1828), a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842, and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in Constantinople between 1875 and 1877 as a two-volume set, during the First Constitutional Era.
Gustav Flügel published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in Leipzig, which remained authoritative in Europe for close to a century, until Cairo's Al-Azhar University published an edition of the Quran in 1924. This edition was the result of a long preparation, as it standardized Quranic orthography, and it remains the basis of later editions.
Criticism
Regarding the claim of divine origin, critics refer to pre-existing sources, not only taken from the Bible, supposed to be older revelations of God, but also from heretic, Apocryphic and talmudic sources, such as the Syriac Infancy Gospel and Gospel of James. The Quran acknowledges that accusations of borrowing popular ancient fables were being made against Muhammad.
Relationship with other literature
Some non-Muslim groups such as the Baháʼí Faith and Druze view the Quran as holy. In the Baháʼí Faith, the Quran is accepted as authentic revelation from God along with the revelations of the other world religions, Islam being a stage within the divine process of progressive revelation. Bahá'u'lláh, the Prophet-Founder of the Baháʼí Faith, testified to the validity of the Quran, writing, say: "Perused ye not the Qur'án? Read it, that haply ye may find the Truth, for this Book is verily the Straight Path. This is the Way of God unto all who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth."Unitarian Universalists may also seek inspiration from the Quran. It has been suggested that the Quran has some narrative similarities to the Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel. One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a gospel harmony, may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.
The Bible
The Quran attributes its relationship with former books (the Torah and the Gospels) to their unique origin, saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.
According to Christoph Luxenberg (in The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran) the Quran's language was similar to the Syriac language. The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual. Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad (by name—Muhammad is often alluded to as "The Prophet" or "The Apostle"), while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than in the New Testament.
Arab writing
After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form. The Arabic grammarian Sibawayh wrote one of the earliest books on Arabic grammar, referred to as "Al-Kitab", which relied heavily on the language in the Quran. Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago, and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University, state that the Quran exerted a particular influence on Arabic literature's diction, themes, metaphors, motifs and symbols and added new expressions and new meanings to old, pre-Islamic words that would become ubiquitous.
See also
- List of chapters in the Quran
- List of translations of the Quran
- Quran translations
- Historical reliability of the Quran
- Quran and miracles
- Quran code
- Criticism of the Quran
- Violence in the Quran
- Women in the Quran
- Digital Quran
- The True Furqan
- Qira'at
- Hadith
- Hadith al-Thaqalayn
- Islamic schools and branches
- Schools of Islamic theology
- Attempted imitations of the Quran
References
Notes
- The English pronunciation varies: /kəˈrɑːn/, /-ˈræn/, /kɔː-/, /koʊ-/; especially with the spelling quran /kʊˈrɑːn/, /-ˈræn/; especially in British English /kɒˈrɑːn/.
- The Arabic pronunciation can be transcribed phonemically as /al.qurˈʔaːn/. The actual pronunciation in Literary Arabic varies regionally. The first vowel varies from [o] to [ʊ], while the second vowel varies from [æ] to [a] to [ɑ]. For example, the pronunciation in Egypt is [qorˈʔɑːn] and in Central East Arabia [qʊrˈʔæːn].
- /kʊˈrɑːn/, kuurr-AHN;vocalized Arabic: ٱلْقُرْآن, Quranic Arabic: ٱلۡقُرۡءَان, al-Qurʾān [alqurˈʔaːn],lit. 'the recitation' or 'the lecture'
- (English spelling) The form Alcoran (and its variants) was usual before the 19th century when it became obsolete. The form Koran was most predominant from the second half of the 18th century till the 1980s, when it has been superseded by either Qur'an or Quran. Other transliterations include al-Coran, Coran, Kuran and al-Qur'an. The adjectives vary as well and include Koranic, Quranic and Qur'anic (sometimes in lowercase).
- According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam, the verses pertaining to the usage of the word hikma should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that "Muhammad is to judge (tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him."
- Hadith are primarily from Muhammad but some are from those closest to him. Muslim scholars have worked carefully to authenticate them; see Hadith studies#Evaluating authenticity.
- "God's Apostle replied, 'Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says.' ʻAisha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."
- "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
- There is some disagreement among early Muslim sources disagree over who was the first to collect the narrations. At least one source credits Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah with collecting the Qur'an into a mushaf: "It is reported... from Ibn Buraidah who said:
The first of those to collect the Qur'an into a mushaf (codex) was Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah.
- For both the claim that variant readings are still transmitted and the claim that no such critical edition has been produced, see Gilliot, C., "Creation of a fixed text"
- Scholars disagree on the exact number but this is a disagreement over "the placing of the divisions between the verese, not on the text itself."
- "The final process of collection and codification of the Quran text was guided by one over-arching principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Quran disorganized, repetitive and very difficult to read."
- Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Quran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!"
- professor emeritus of Islamic thought at the University of Paris, Algerian Mohammed Arkoun.
- "the major Ottoman printing houses published a combined total of only 142 books in more than a century of printing between 1727 and 1838. When taken in conjunction with the fact that only a minuscule number of copies of each book were printed, this statistic demonstrates that the introduction of the printing press did not transform Ottoman cultural life until the emergence of vibrant print media in the middle of the nineteenth century"
- "at imperial expense, a 'Tatar and Turkish Typography' was established in St. Petersburg; a domestic scholar, Mullah Osman Ismail, was responsible for the manufacture of the types. One of the first products of this printing house was the Qur'ān. Through the doctor and writer, Johann Georg v. Zimmermann (d. 1795), who was befriended by Catherine II, a copy of the publication arrived in the Göttingen University library. Its director, the philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne (d. 1812), presented the work immediately in the Göttingische Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen (28 July 1788); therein he pointed especially to the beauty of the Arabic types. To the Arabic text marginal glosses have been added that consist predominantly of reading variants. The imprint was reproduced unchanged in 1790 and 1793 in St. Petersburg (cf. Schnurrer, Bibliotheca arabica, no. 384); later, after the transfer of the printing house to Kazan, editions appeared in different formats and with varying presentation
- Qira’at: All except for ʻAsem, Al-Kesa’i, Yaʻqub and Khalaf in one of his narrations read [māliki yawmi-d-dīn(i)] as 4 King of the Day of Judgement.
- Arabic and Persian writers such as 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi, 11th-century scholar Nasir Khusraw, 12th-century geographer al-Idrisi and 15th-century Islamic scholar Mujir al-Din, as well as 19th-century American and British Orientalists Edward Robinson,Guy Le Strange and Edward Henry Palmer explained that the term Masjid al-Aqsa refers to the entire esplanade plaza also known as the Temple Mount or Haram al-Sharif ('Noble Sanctuary') – i.e. the entire area including the Dome of the Rock, the fountains, the gates, and the four minarets – because none of these buildings existed at the time the Quran was written.
- Human qualities which are attributed to Allah in the Quran such as coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sadness; "Allah has equipped them with words to bring them closer to our minds; in this respect, they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind and thus help the listener to clearly understand the idea he wants to express."
- My mother, the high priestess, conceived; in secret she bore me She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid She cast me into the river which rose over me.
- Beyza Bilgin states that the expression 'let them put their outer coverings over themselves' in the 59th verse of Al-Ahzab was revealed because they harassed women under the conditions of that day, considering them to be concubines, and commented as follows:
She said the following about covering herself in prayer :"In other words, veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period. These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God's command. Women have been called God's command for a thousand years. Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters-in-law."
"They tell me; 'Do you cover yourself while praying?' Of course, I cover up when I'm in congregation. I am obliged not to disturb the peace. But I also pray with my head uncovered in my own home. Because the Quran's requirement for prayer is not covering up, but ablution and turning towards the qibla. This is a thousand year old issue. It's so ingrained in us. But this should definitely not be underestimated. Because people do it thinking it is God's command. But on the other hand, we should not declare a person who does not cover up as a bad woman."
- "The Caliphate in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace." The Arab slave trade typically dealt in the sale of castrated male slaves. Black boys at the age of eight to twelve had their penises and scrota completely amputated. Reportedly, about two out of three boys died, but those who survived drew high prices.
- In Shiite jurisprudence, it is unlawful for a master of a female slave to grant a third party the use of her for sexual relations. The Shiite scholar Shaykh al-Tusi stated: ولا يجوز إعارتها للاستمتاع بها لأن البضع لا يستباح بالإعارة "It is not permissible to loan (the slave girl) for enjoyment purpose, because sexual intercourse cannot be legitimate through loaning" and the Shiite scholars al-Muhaqiq al-Kurki, Allamah Al-Hilli and Ali Asghar Merwarid made the following ruling: ولا تجوز استعارة الجواري للاستمتاع "It is not permissible to loan the slave girl for the purpose of sexual intercourse"
- Beyza Bilgin states that the expression 'let them put their outer coverings over themselves' in the 59th verse of Al-Ahzab was revealed because they harassed women under the conditions of that day, considering them to be concubines, and commented as follows:
"In other words, veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period. These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God's command. Women have been called God's command for a thousand years. Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters-in-law."
- Mehmet Özdemir (prof.dr.) regarding sirah draws attention to the almost non-existent number of miracles (dalāʾil al-nubuwwa) in the first records and the hundreds of additions made in later periods.
- In Luxenberg's Syro-Aramaic reading, the verse instead commands women to "snap their belts around their waists." The belt was a sign of chastity in the Christian world. According to him, the meanings of the words in the relevant part of the verse are as follows:خِمار Khimar; cummerbund, جيب jyb; sinus, sac, وَلْيَضْرِبْنَ;"let them hit"
Citations
- dictionary.reference.com: koran
- dictionary.reference.com: quran
- Cambridge dictionary: koran
- Cambridge dictionary: quran
- "Alcoran". Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 1888. p. 210.
- "Google Books Ngram Viewer". Google Books. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
- "Koran". Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 5 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 1901. p. 753.
- "Koran". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- "Quran". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- "Koran". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
- Guillaume, Alfred (1954). Islam. Edinburgh: Penguin books. p. 74.
It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.
- Toropov, Brandon; Buckles, Luke (2004). Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions. Alpha. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-59257-222-9.
Muslims believe that Muhammad's many divine encounters during his years in Mecca and Medina inspired the remainder of the Qur'an, which, nearly fourteen centuries later, remains the Arabic language's preeminent masterpiece.
- Esposito, John (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3.
Throughout history, many Arab Christians as well have regarded it as the perfection of the Arabic language and literature.
- Wheeler, Brannon M. (2002). Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis. A&C Black. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8264-4957-3.
- "The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon". Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
- Nasr 2007
- Quran 75:17
- Quran 7:204
- See "Ķur'an, al-", Encyclopedia of Islam Online and 9:111
- Quran 20:2 cf.
- Quran 25:32 cf.
- Jaffer, Abbas; Jaffer, Masuma (2009). Quranic Sciences. ICAS press. pp. 11–15. ISBN 978-1-904063-30-8.
- Surah Al-Qadr 97
- Sandıkcı, Özlem; Rice, Gillian (2011). Handbook of Islamic Marketing. Edward Elgar. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-84980-013-6.
- Fisher, Mary Pat (1997). Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths (Rev. ed.). London: I. B. Tauris Publishers. p. 338.
- Quran 17:106
- Tabatabae 1988, p. 98
- Richard Bell (Revised and Enlarged by W. Montgomery Watt) (1970). Bell's introduction to the Qur'an. Univ. Press. pp. 31–51. ISBN 978-0-85224-171-4.
- P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis (1970). The Cambridge history of Islam (Reprint. ed.). Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4.
- Denffer, Ahmad von (1985). Ulum al-Qur'an: an introduction to the sciences of the Qur an (Repr. ed.). Islamic Foundation. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-86037-132-8.
- "Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 1". Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. University of Southern California. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012.
- Quran 53:5
- Quran 53:6-9
- Buhl, Fr. (2012) [1913–1936]. "Muhammad". In Houtsma, M. Th.; Arnold, T. W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Islam (1 ed.). doi:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_4746. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6.
- Quran 7:157
- Günther, Sebastian (2002). "Muhammad, the Illiterate Prophet: An Islamic Creed in the Quran and Quranic Exegesis". Journal of Quranic Studies. 4 (1): 1–26. doi:10.3366/jqs.2002.4.1.1. ISSN 1465-3591.
- "The Origins of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an". Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
- Philips, Abu Ameenah Bilal (2006). Tafseer Soorah Al -Hujurat (New Revised Edition 2 ed.). International Islamic Publishing House. pp. 50–54. ISBN 9960-9677-0-0.
- "Qira't and the 7 Ahruf: All You Need To Know". Arabian Tongue. 15 February 2023. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
- Academy, Ulum Al-Azhar (13 August 2024). "What Is Ahruf And Qirat? | A Full Guide - Ulum Al Azhar". Retrieved 15 August 2024.
- "Background of 7 Ahruf (Dialects) of the Quran". Rizqan Kareem - Most Excellent Sustenance. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
- "معهد الفتح الإسلامي يرحب بكم". www.alfatihonline.com. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
- Campo, Juan E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts On File. pp. 570–574. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
- Donner, Fred (2006). "The historical context". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–33.
- Roslan Abdul-Rahim (December 2017). "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an". Global Journal Al-Thaqafah. 7 (2): 62. doi:10.7187/GJAT122017-2. ISSN 2232-0474.
- "Wat is de Koran?". Koran.nl (in Dutch). 18 February 2016.
- Cook 2000, p. 121.
- Tabatabae 1988, p. 99:
Since the word of God seemed threatened with alteration, the [third] caliph ordered that five of the qurrā' from amongst the companions, (one of them being Zayd ibn Thābit who had compiled the first volume), produce other copies from the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of the first caliph and which had been kept with Ḥafṣah, the wife of the Prophet and daughter of the second caliph.
The other copies, already in the hands of Muslims in other areas, were collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the Caliph, they were burnt (or, according to some historians, were destroyed by boiling). Thus several copies were made, one being kept in Medina, one in Mecca, and one each sent to Sham (a territory now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan), Kufa and Basra.
It is said that beside these five, one copy was also sent to Yemen and one to Bahrein. These copies were called the Imam copies and served as original for all future copies. The only difference of order between these copies and the first volume was that the chapters "Spirits of War" and "Immunity" were written in one place between "The Heights" and "Jonah."
- al-Bukhari, Muhammad. "Sahih Bukhari, volume 6, book 61, narrations number 509 and 510". sahih-bukhari.com. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
- Cook 2000, p. 117.
- Rippin 2006:
- "Poetry and Language", by Navid Kermani, pp. 107–20.
- For the history of compilation see "Introduction," by Tamara Sonn, pp. 5–6
- For eschatology, see "Discovering (final destination)", by Christopher Buck, p. 30.
- For literary structure, see "Language," by Mustansir Mir, p. 93.
- For writing and printing, see "Written Transmission", by François Déroche, pp. 172–87.
- For recitation, see "Recitation," by Anna M. Gade pp. 481–93
- Yusuff, Mohamad K. "Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur'an".
- Cook 2000, pp. 117–124.
- Peters 1991, pp. 3–5
- John Gilchrist, Jam' Al-Qur'an. The Codification of the Qur'an Text A Comprehensive Study of the Original Collection of the Qur'an Text and the Early Surviving Qur'an Manuscripts, [MERCSA, Mondeor, 2110 Republic of South Africa, 1989], Chapter 1. "The Initial Collection of the Qur'an Text", citing as-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fii Ulum al-Qur'an, p. 135).
- "Noorullah Website - Is the Qur'an Corrupted? Shi'ites View". 27 October 2009. Archived from the original on 27 October 2009.
- Shirazi, Muhammad (2001). The Qur'an - When was it compiled?. London,UK: Fountain Books. pp. 5, 7.
- Shirazi, Muhammad (2008). The Shi'a and their Beliefs. London,UK: Fountain Books. p. 29.
- HADDADIAN ABDORREZA; MOADDAB SEYYED REZA. "A STUDY ON TRADITIONS OF DISTORTION IN AYYASHI EXEGESIS". Hadith Studies. 4 (8): 141–166.
- Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Sayyari (2009). Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.). "Revelation and Falsification: The Kitab al-qira'at of Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Sayyari: Critical Edition with an Introduction and Notes by Etan Kohlberg and Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi". Texts and Studies on the Qurʼān. 4. BRILL: vii. ISSN 1567-2808.
- Kohlberg & Amir-Moezzi 2009, p.24-26-27
- Kohlberg & Amir-Moezzi 2009, pp.20, 24
- Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
- For God in the Quran (Allah), see "Allah", by Zeki Saritoprak, pp. 33–40.
- For eschatology, see "Eschatology," by Zeki Saritoprak, pp. 194–99.
- For searching the Arabic text on the internet and writing, see "Cyberspace and the Qur'an", by Andrew Rippin, pp. 159–63.
- For calligraphy, see by "Calligraphy and the Qur'an" by Oliver Leaman, pp. 130–35.
- For translation, see "Translation and the Qur'an," by Afnan Fatani, pp. 657–69.
- For recitation, see "Art and the Qur'an" by Tamara Sonn, pp. 71–81; and "Reading", by Stefan Wild, pp. 532–35.
- Religions of the world Lewis M. Hopfe – 1979 "Some Muslims have suggested and practiced textual criticism of the Quran in a manner similar to that practiced by Christians and Jews on their bibles. No one has yet suggested the higher criticism of the Quran."
- Egypt's culture wars: politics and practice – Page 278 Samia Mehrez – 2008 Middle East report: Issues 218–222; Issues 224–225 Middle East Research & Information Project, JSTOR (Organization) – 2001 Shahine filed to divorce Abu Zayd from his wife, on the grounds that Abu Zayd's textual criticism of the Quran made him an apostate, and hence unfit to marry a Muslim. Abu Zayd and his wife eventually relocated to the Netherlands
- Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008: p.30
- Donner, Fred M. (2014). "Review: Textual Criticism and Qurʾān Manuscripts, by Keith E. Small". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 73 (1): 166–169. doi:10.1086/674909.
- Melchert, Christopher (2000). "Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings". Studia Islamica (91): 5–22. doi:10.2307/1596266. JSTOR 1596266.
- Ibn Warraq, Which Koran? Variants, Manuscript, Linguistics, p. 45. Prometheus Books, 2011. ISBN 1-59102-430-7
- Gilliot, C. (2006). "Creation of a fixed text". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān. Cambridge University Press. p. 52.
- "'The Qur'an: Text, Interpretation and Translation' Third Biannual SOAS Conference, 16–17 October 2003". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 6 (1): 143–145. April 2004. doi:10.3366/jqs.2004.6.1.143.
- Bergmann, Uwe; Sadeghi, Behnam (September 2010). "The Codex of a Companion of the Prophet and the Qurān of the Prophet". Arabica. 57 (4): 343–436. doi:10.1163/157005810X504518.
- Sadeghi, Behnam; Goudarzi, Mohsen (March 2012). "Ṣan'ā' 1 and the Origins of the Qur'ān". Der Islam. 87 (1–2): 1–129. doi:10.1515/islam-2011-0025. S2CID 164120434.
- Lester, Toby (January 1999). "What Is the Koran?". Atlantic. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
- "An Inscription Mentioning the Rebuilding of Al-Masjid Al-Haram, 78 AH / 697-698 CE".
- Jeffrey 1952, pp. 99–120.
- Robinson 1996, p. 56.
- Le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 96. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
Great confusion is introduced into the Arab descriptions of the Noble Sanctuary by the indiscriminate use of the terms Al Masjid or Al Masjid al Akså, Jami' or Jami al Aksâ; and nothing but an intimate acquaintance with the locality described will prevent a translator, ever and again, misunderstanding the text he has before him-since the native authorities use the technical terms in an extraordinarily inexact manner, often confounding the whole, and its part, under the single denomination of "Masjid." Further, the usage of various writers differs considerably on these points : Mukaddasi invariably speaks of the whole Haram Area as Al Masjid, or as Al Masjid al Aksî, "the Akså Mosque," or "the mosque," while the Main-building of the mosque, at the south end of the Haram Area, which we generally term the Aksa, he refers to as Al Mughattâ, "the Covered-part." Thus he writes "the mosque is entered by thirteen gates," meaning the gates of the Haram Area. So also "on the right of the court," means along the west wall of the Haram Area; "on the left side" means the east wall; and "at the back" denotes the northern boundary wall of the Haram Area. Nasir-i-Khusrau, who wrote in Persian, uses for the Main-building of the Aksâ Mosque the Persian word Pushish, that is, "Covered part," which exactly translates the Arabic Al Mughatta. On some occasions, however, the Akså Mosque (as we call it) is spoken of by Näsir as the Maksurah, a term used especially to denote the railed-off oratory of the Sultan, facing the Mihrâb, and hence in an extended sense applied to the building which includes the same. The great Court of the Haram Area, Nâsir always speaks of as the Masjid, or the Masjid al Akså, or again as the Friday Mosque (Masjid-i-Jum'ah).
- Idrīsī, Muhammad; Jaubert, Pierre Amédée (1836). Géographie d'Édrisi (in French). à l'Imprimerie royale. pp. 343–344. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
Sous la domination musulmane il fut agrandi, et c'est (aujourd'hui) la grande mosquée connue par les Musulmans sous le nom de Mesdjid el-Acsa مسجد الأقصى. Il n'en existe pas au monde qui l'égale en grandeur, si l'on en excepte toutefois la grande mosquée de Cordoue en Andalousie; car, d'après ce qu'on rapporte, le toit de cette mosquée est plus grand que celui de la Mesdjid el-Acsa. Au surplus, l'aire de cette dernière forme un parallelogramme dont la hauteur est de deux cents brasses (ba'a), et le base de cents quatre-vingts. La moitié de cet espace, celle qui est voisin du Mihrab, est couverte d'un toit (ou plutôt d'un dôme) en pierres soutenu par plusieurs rangs de colonnes; l'autre est à ciel ouvert. Au centre de l'édifice est un grand dôme connu sous le nom de Dôme de la roche; il fut orné d'arabesques en or et d'autres beaux ouvrages, par les soins de divers califes musulmans. Le dôme est percé de quatre portes; en face de celle qui est à l'occident, on voit l'autel sur lequel les enfants d'Israël offraient leurs sacrifices; auprès de la porte orientale est l'église nommée le saint des saints, d'une construction élégante; au midi est une chapelle qui était à l'usage des Musulmans; mais les chrétiens s'en sont emparés de vive force et elle est restée en leur pouvoir jusqu'à l'époque de la composition du présent ouvrage. Ils ont converti cette chapelle en un couvent où résident des religieux de l'ordre des templiers, c'est-à-dire des serviteurs de la maison de Dieu.
Also at Williams, G.; Willis, R. (1849). "Account of Jerusalem during the Frank Occupation, extracted from the Universal Geography of Edrisi. Climate III. sect. 5. Translated by P. Amédée Jaubert. Tome 1. pp. 341—345.". The Holy City: Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem. J.W. Parker. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2022. - Williams, George (1849). The Holy City: Historical, Topographical and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem. Parker. pp. 143–160. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
The following detailed account of the Haram es-Sherif, with some interesting notices of the City, is extracted from an Arabic work entitled " The Sublime Companion to the History of Jerusalem and Hebron, by Kadi Mejir-ed-din, Ebil-yemen Abd-er-Rahman, El-Alemi," who died A. H. 927, (A. d. 1521)… "I have at the commencement called attention to the fact that the place now called by the name Aksa (i. e. the most distant), is the Mosk [Jamia] properly so called, at the southern extremity of the area, where is the Minbar and the great Mihrab. But in fact Aksa is the name of the whole area enclosed within the walls, the dimensions of which I have just given, for the Mosk proper [Jamia], the Dome of the Rock, the Cloisters, and other buildings, are all of late construction, and Mesjid el-Aksa is the correct name of the whole area."
and also von Hammer-Purgstall, J.F. (1811). "Chapitre vingtième. Description de la mosquée Mesdjid-ol-aksa, telle qu'elle est de nos jours, (du temps de l'auteur, au dixième siècle de l'Hégire, au seizième après J. C.)". Fundgruben des Orients (in French). Vol. 2. Gedruckt bey A. Schmid. p. 93. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2022.Nous avons dès le commencement appelé l'attention sur que l'endroit, auquel les hommes donnent aujourd'hui le nom d'Aksa, c'est à-dire, la plus éloignée, est la mosquée proprement dite, bâtie à l'extrêmité méridionale de l'enceinte où se trouve la chaire et le grand autel. Mais en effet Aksa est le nom de l'enceinte entière, en tant qu'elle est enfermée de murs, dont nous venons de donner la longueur et la largeur, car la mosquée proprement dite, le dôme de la roche Sakhra, les portiques et les autres bâtimens, sont tous des constructions récentes, et Mesdjidol-aksa est le véritable nom de toute l'enceinte. (Le Mesdjid des arabes répond à l'ίερόν et le Djami au ναός des grecs.)
- Mustafa Abu Sway (Fall 2000). "The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Islamic Sources". Journal of the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR): 60–68. Archived from the original on 29 May 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
Quoting Mujir al-Din: "Verily, 'Al-Aqsa' is a name for the whole mosque which is surrounded by the wall, the length and width of which are mentioned here, for the building that exists in the southern part of the Mosque, and the other ones such as the Dome of the Rock and the corridors and other [buildings] are novel"
- Robinson, E.; Smith, E. (1841). Biblical Researches in Palestine. John Murray.
The Jámi'a el-Aksa is the mosk alone; the Mesjid el-Aksa is the mosk with all the sacred enclosure and precincts, including the Sükhrah. Thus the words Mesjid and Jāmi'a differ in usage somewhat like the Greek ίερόν and ναός.
- Palmer, E. H. (1871). "History of the Haram Es Sherif: Compiled from the Arabic Historians". Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 3 (3): 122–132. doi:10.1179/peq.1871.012. ISSN 0031-0328.
EXCURSUS ON THE NAME MASJID EL AKSA. In order to understand the native accounts of the sacred area at Jerusalem, it is essentially necessary to keep in mind the proper application of the various names by which it is spoken of. When the Masjid el Aksa is mentioned, that name is usually supposed to refer to the well-known mosque on the south side of the Haram, but such is not really the case. The latter building is called El Jámʻi el Aksa, or simply El Aksa, and the substructures are called El Aksa el Kadímeh (the ancient Aksa), while the title El Masjid el Aksa is applied to the whole sanctuary. The word Jámi is exactly equivalent in sense to the Greek συναγωγή, and is applied to the church or building in which the worshippers congregate. Masjid, on the other hand, is a much more general term; it is derived from the verb sejada "to adore," and is applied to any spot, the sacred character of which would especially incite the visitor to an act of devotion. Our word mosque is a corruption of masjid, but it is usually misapplied, as the building is never so designated, although the whole area on which it stands may be so spoken of. The Cubbet es Sakhrah, El Aksa, Jam'i el Magharibeh, &c., are each called a Jami, but the entire Haram is a masjid. This will explain how it is that 'Omar, after visiting the churches of the Anastasis, Sion, &c., was taken to the "Masjid" of Jerusalem, and will account for the statement of Ibn el 'Asa'kir and others, that the Masjid el Aksa measured over 600 cubits in length-that is, the length of the whole Haram area. The name Masjid el Aksa is borrowed from the passage in the Coran (xvii. 1), when allusion is made to the pretended ascent of Mohammed into heaven from ·the temple of Jerusalem; "Praise be unto Him who transported His servant by night from El Masjid el Haram (i.e., 'the Sacred place of Adoration' at Mecca) to El Masjid el Aksa (i.e., 'the Remote place of Adoration' at Jerusalem), the precincts of which we have blessed," &c. The title El Aksa, "the Remote," according to the Mohammedan doctors, is applied to the temple of Jerusalem "either because of its distance from Mecca, or because it is in the centre of the earth."
- Le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers. Houghton, Mifflin. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
THE AKSÀ MOSQUE. The great mosque of Jerusalem, Al Masjid al Aksà, the "Further Mosque," derives its name from the traditional Night Journey of Muhammad, to which allusion is made in the words of the Kuran (xvii. I)... the term "Mosque" being here taken to denote the whole area of the Noble Sanctuary, and not the Main-building of the Aksà only, which, in the Prophet's days, did not exist.
- Strange, Guy le (1887). "Description of the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem in 1470 A.D., by Kamâl (or Shams) ad Dîn as Suyûtî". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 19 (2). Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 247–305. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00019420. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25208864. S2CID 163050043.
…the term Masjid (whence, through the Spanish Mezquita, our word Mosque) denotes the whole of the sacred edifice, comprising the main building and the court, with its lateral arcades and minor chapels. The earliest specimen of the Arab mosque consisted of an open courtyard, within which, round its four walls, run colonades or cloisters to give shelter to the worshippers. On the side of the court towards the Kiblah (in the direction of Mekka), and facing which the worshipper must stand, the colonade, instead of being single, is, for the convenience of the increased numbers of the congregation, widened out to form the Jami' or place of assembly… coming now to the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem, we must remember that the term 'Masjid' belongs not only to the Aksa mosque (more properly the Jami' or place of assembly for prayer), but to the whole enclosure with the Dome of the Rock in the middle, and all the other minor domes and chapels.
- Coughlan, Sean. "'Oldest' Koran fragments found in Birmingham University". BBC. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
- Dan Bilefsky (22 July 2015). "A Find in Britain: Quran Fragments Perhaps as Old as Islam". New York Times. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
- Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (mainly non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the invasion of Palestine. See Stephen J. Shoemaker, The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's Life and the Beginnings of Islam,[page needed] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
- "New Light on the History of the Quranic Text?". The Huffington Post. 24 July 2015. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
- Saeed, Abdullah (2008). The Qurʼan: an introduction. London: Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-415-42124-9.
- Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Mohammed?". Open Democracy. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
- Vogel, Frank E. (2000). Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. Brill. pp. 4–5. ISBN 9004110623.
- "Surah Al-Isra – 7". Quran.com. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
- 1 Kings 11:1, 7–8
- Bietenholz, Peter G. (1994). Historia and fabula: myths and legends in historical thought from antiquity to the modern age. Brill. ISBN 978-9004100633.
- Fazeli, Hamidreza; Tali Tabasi, Marziyeh; Fazeli, Alireza; Fararooei, Shokrolla. "A Critical Study of the Quran's Theory of Mythology (A Case Study on Mohammad Arkoun's Perspectives)". Iraqi Open Access Journals. p. 2. Retrieved 5 March 2024.
After examining the verses of the Quran to find where the word mythology has been used and seeking the accordance between the meaning and context with Quran's purpose of knowledge and guidance, including rules and educational issues, we found that the concept of myth is not acceptable in the Quran. The result of this study show that Quran is not a myth, rather the stories are factual and based on reality.
- Watt 1960–2007: "It is generally agreed both by Muslim commentators and modéra [sic] occidental scholars that Dhu ’l-Ḳarnayn [...] is to be identified with Alexander the Great." Cook 2013: "[...] Dhū al-Qarnayn (usually identified with Alexander the Great) [...]".
- Hämeen-Anttila, Jaakko (17 April 2018). Khwadāynāmag The Middle Persian Book of Kings. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-27764-9.
Many Mediaeval scholars argued against the identification, though. Cf., e.g., the discussion in al-Maqrizi, Khabar §§212-232.
- Maqrīzī, Aḥmad Ibn-ʿAlī al-; Hämeen-Anttila, Jaakko (2018). Al-Maqrīzī's al-Ḫabar ʻan al-bašar: vol. V, section 4: Persia and its kings, part I. Bibliotheca Maqriziana Opera maiora. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 279–281. ISBN 978-90-04-35599-6.
- Zadeh, Travis (28 February 2017). Mapping Frontiers Across Medieval Islam: Geography, Translation and the 'Abbasid Empire. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-1-78673-131-9.
In the early history of Islam there was a lively debate over the true identity of Dhū 'l-Qarnayn. One prominent identification was with an ancient South Arabian Ḥimyarī king, generally referred to in the sources as al-Ṣaʿb b. Dhī Marāthid. [...] Indeed the association of Dhū 'l-Qarnayn with the South Arabian ruler can be traced in many early Arabic sources.
- Quran 67:3
- Saritoprak, Zeki (2006). "Allah". In Leaman, Oliver (ed.). The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. pp. 33–40. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
- D.B. Macdonald. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "Ilah", Vol. 3, p. 1093.
- Yuskaev, Timur R. (18 October 2017). Speaking Qur'an: An American Scripture. Univ of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-61117-795-4.
Indeed, "Lord" is a direct translation of the Arabic word Rabb.
- "bir söyleşide yaptığı ilgili açıklama". YouTube. 15 August 2016. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
- Tabatabai, Allamah. "Al-Mizan Discourses". Tafsir Al-Mizan <!-– Allamah Muhammad Hussein Tabatabai -->. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
- "The Qur'an Possesses Revelation and Exegesis". Allamah Tabatabaee. Islamic Ma'aref Foundation Institute. 1988. pp. 37–45. Archived from the original on 16 February 2012.
- Quran 41:43
- Levenson 2012, p. 8.
- Peters 2003, p. 9.
- Levenson 2012, p. 200.
- Lings 2004.
- Quran 2:135
- Glassé, Cyril (1991). "Abraham". Kaaba. The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. HarperSanFrancisco, Suhail Academy. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0-0606-3126-0.
- Coogan, Michael David; Coogan, Michael D. (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2.
Many of these forms are not, and should not be considered, historically based; Moses' birth narrative, for example, is built on folkloric motifs found throughout the ancient world.
- Rendsburg, Gary A. (2006). "Moses as Equal to Pharaoh". In Beckman, Gary M.; Lewis, Theodore J. (eds.). Text, Artifact, and Image: Revealing Ancient Israelite Religion. Brown Judaic Studies. p. 204. ISBN 978-1-930675-28-5.
- Finlay, Timothy D. (2005). The Birth Report Genre in the Hebrew Bible. Forschungen zum Alten Testament. Vol. 12. Mohr Siebeck. p. 236. ISBN 978-3-16-148745-3.
- "Moses". Oxford Biblical Studies Online.
- Ltd, Hymns Ancient Modern (May 1996). Third Way (magazine). p. 18.[better source needed]
- Keeler, Annabel (2005). "Moses from a Muslim Perspective". In Solomon, Norman; Harries, Richard; Winter, Tim (eds.). Abraham's children: Jews, Christians and Muslims in conversation. T&T Clark. pp. 55–66. ISBN 978-0-567-08171-1. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016.
- Hagen, G. (2009). "From Haggadic Exegesis To Myth: Popular Stories Of The Prophets In Islam". In Sacred Tropes: Tanakh, New Testament, and Qur’an as Literature and Culture. Leiden, Niederlande: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004177529.i-536.65
- Izutsu, Toshihiko (6 June 2007) [2002]. Ethico-religious concepts in the Qur'an (Repr. ed.). McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-7735-2427-9.
- Dalley defends traditional opinion: "The name or epithet of Atrahasis is used for the skillful god of craftmanship Kothar-wa-hasis in Ugaritic mythology, and is abbreviated to Chousor in the Greek account of Syrian origins related by Philo of Byblos. A similar abbreviation is used in the name of the Islamic sage Al-khidr..." Stephanie Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others, Oxford, revised edition 2000, p. 2 ISBN 0-19-283589-0
- "Myths from Mesopotamia – Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 September 2014. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
- Cole, Juan (2021). "Dyed in Virtue: The Qur'ān and Plato's Republic". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 61: 582.
- Kassis, Riad Aziz (1999). The Book of Proverbs and Arabic Proverbial Works. Brill. p. 51. ISBN 978-90-04-11305-3.
- "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica".
- T. Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’an, London, McGillQueen’s University Press, 2002, p. 213
- Esack, Farid (2003). Martin, Richard C. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world (Online-Ausg. ed.). Macmillan Reference. pp. 568–562. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.
- Sonn, Tamara (2010). Islam: a brief history (Second ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8093-1.
- Quran 9:103
- Zum Beispiel Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Vgl. Ahmad: Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857–1964. 1967, S. 49.
- "Ek 15 – Dini Görevler: Tanrı'dan Bir Armağan". Teslimolanlar. Archived from the original on 5 November 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
- Vgl. Birışık: "Kurʾâniyyûn" in Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 2002, Bd. 26, S. 429.; Yüksel; al-Shaiban; Schulte-Nafeh: Quran: A Reformist Translation. 2007, S. 507.
- "10. How Can we Observe the Sala Prayers by Following the Quran Alone? - Edip-Layth - quranix.org". quranix.org. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
- Elizabeth M. Bucar (2011). Creative Conformity: The Feminist Politics of U.S. Catholic and Iranian Shi'i Women. Georgetown University Press. p. 118. ISBN 9781589017528.
- Hameed, Shahul (9 October 2003). "Is Hijab a Qur'anic Commandment?". Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
- Nomani, Asra Q.; Arafa, Hala (21 December 2015). "Opinion: As Muslim women, we actually ask you not to wear the hijab in the name of interfaith solidarity". Washington Post. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
- ""Örtünmek Allah'ın emri değil"" (in Turkish). haberturk.com. 28 May 2008. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
- "Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre-Islamic Arab Society | SADIK KIRAZLI | download". Archived from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 12 July 2024.
- Al-Jallad 2022, p. 41–44, 68.
- Dost 2023.
- "Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre-Islamic Arab Society | SADIK KIRAZLI | download". Archived from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
- Tahir Wasti. "The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Practice" (PDF). ndl.ethernet.edu.et.
- "Surah Al-Baqarah – 282". Quran.com. Retrieved 16 December 2024.
- Powers, David S. (1993). "Islamic Inheritance System: A Socio-Historical Approach". Arab Law Quarterly. 8 (1): 13–29. doi:10.1163/157302593X00285. JSTOR 3381490.
- Peters, Rudolph (2006). Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 53–55. ISBN 978-0521796705.
- www
.alhakam .org /what-is-the-meaning-of-those-whom-your-right-hand-possesses-milk-al-yamin - Segal, Ronald (9 February 2002). Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0374527976.
- Wilson, Jean D.; Roehrborn, Claus (1999). "Long-Term Consequences of Castration in Men: Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 84 (12): 4324–4331. doi:10.1210/jcem.84.12.6206. PMID 10599682.
- Shaykh al-Tusi stated in Al-Mabsut, Volume 3 page 57
- al-Muhaqiq al-Kurki in Jame'a al-Maqasid, Volume 6 page 62, Allamah al-Hilli in Al-Tadkira, Volume 2 page 210 and Ali Asghar Merwarid in Al-Yanabi al-Fiqhya, Volume 17 page 187
- Khasan, Moh (24 May 2021). "From Textuality to Universality: The Evolution of Ḥirābah Crimes in Islamic Jurisprudence". Al-Jami'ah: Journal of Islamic Studies. 59 (1): 1–32. doi:10.14421/ajis.2021.591.1-32. ISSN 2338-557X. Retrieved 16 November 2024.
- Vikør, Knut S. (2014). "Sharīʿah". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 4 June 2014.
- Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (2009). "Law. Modern Legal Reform". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008.
- Buck C (2006). "Discovering (final destination)". In Rippin A, et al. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an (2a reimpr. ed.). Blackwell. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-4051-1752-4.
- Genesis 2:10–14.
- Haleem, Muhammad Abdel (2005). Understanding the Qur'an: themes and style. I.B. Tauris. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-86064-650-8.
- Cook 2000, p. 119.
- Dukes, Kais. "RE: Number of Unique Words in the Quran". The Mail Archive. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
- National Geographic, issue mysteries of history, September 2018, p.45.
- Burrowes, Robert D. (2010). Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 319. ISBN 978-0810855281.
- see Jamal Malik (6 April 2020). Islam in South Asia: Revised, Enlarged and Updated Second Edition. BRILL. p. 580. ISBN 978-90-04-42271-1.
- See:* "Kur`an, al-", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
- Allen 2000, p. 53.
- مقطعات is the plural of a participle from قطع, 'to cut, break'.
- Massey, Keith (2002). "Mysterious Letters". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 3. Leiden: Brill. p. 472. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00128. ISBN 90-04-12354-7.
- Suyūtī, al-Durr al-manthūr, vol. 1, p. 57.
- Brown, Norman O. (1991). Apocalypse And/or Metamorphosis. University of California Press. p. 81. ISBN 0-520-07298-7.
- Rashad Khalifa, Quran: Visual Presentation of the Miracle, Islamic Productions International, 1982. ISBN 0-934894-30-2
- Marshall, Alison. "What on earth is a disconnected letter? - Bahaʼu'llah's commentary on the disconnected letters". Retrieved 19 March 2007.
- Luxenberg, Christoph (2009). The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the Koran 1st Edition.
- Stewart, Devin J. (2008). "Notes on Medieval and Modern Emendations of the Qur'an". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.). The Quran in its Historical Context. Routledge. p. 234.
- Sedgwick, Mark (2004). Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515297-2. P. 66.
- Islahi, Amin Ahsan (2004). Taddabur-i-Quran. Faraan Foundation. pp. 82–85.
- Boullata, Issa J (2002), "Literary Structure of Quran", in McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān, vol. 3, Leiden: Brill, pp. 192, 204, ISBN 90-04-12354-7
- Mir M (2006). "Language". In Rippin A, et al. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an (2a reimpr. ed.). Blackwell. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-4051-1752-4.
- Rosenthal, Herman; Waldstein, A. S. "Körner, Moses B. Eliezer". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
- Approaches to the Asian Classics, Irene Blomm, William Theodore De Bary, Columbia University Press, 1990, p. 65
- Peterson, Daniel C. (1990). "Editor's Introduction: By What Measure Shall We Mete?". FARMS Review of Books. The Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship at BYU. Archived from the original on 4 March 2008. Retrieved 30 September 2013.
- Sells, Michael (1999), Approaching the Qur'ān, White Cloud Press
- Brown, Norman O (Winter 1983–1984). "The Apocalypse of Islam". Social Text. 3 (8). Duke University Press: 155–71. doi:10.2307/466329. JSTOR 466329.
- Quran 21:50
- Wild, Stefan, ed. (2006). Self-referentiality in the Qur'an. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-05383-9.
- Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). The Qur'an: an encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 9780415326391
- Peters, F.E. (2003). The Words and Will of God. Princeton University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-691-11461-3.
- For example see comments by Arthur John Arberry: "to produce something which might be accepted as echoing however faintly the sublime rhetoric of the Arabic Koran, I have been at pains to study the intricate and richly varied rhythms which constitute the Koran's undeniable claim to rank amongst the greatest literary masterpieces of mankind Arberry, A.J (1955). The Koran: Interpreted. New York: Macmillan. pp. x; Karen Armstrong : "It is as though Muhammad had created an entirely new literary form that some people were not ready for but which thrilled others. Without this experience of the Koran, it is extremely unlikely that Islam would have taken root." Armstrong, K (1994). A History of God.p.78; Oliver Leaman: "the verses of the Qur'an represent its uniqueness and beauty not to mention its novelty and originality. That is why it has succeeded in convincing so many people of its truth. it imitates nothing and no one nor can it be imitated. Its style does not pall even after long periods of study and the text does not lose its freshness over time" Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia.p.404 and similar views by Joseph Schacht (1974) The legacy of Islam, Henry Stubbe An account of the Rise and Progress of Mohammadanism (1911), Martin Zammit A Comparative Lexical Study of Qur'anic Arabic (2002), and Alfred Guillaume Islam (1990)
- Vasalou, Sophia (2002). "The Miraculous Eloquence of the Qur'an: General Trajectories and Individual Approaches". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 4 (2): 23–53. doi:10.3366/jqs.2002.4.2.23.
- "Well, Did Muhammad Not Copy Some Verses of the Qur'an from Imru'l Qais?".
- "Search Results - Search Results - moon split (page 1) - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com.
- Wensinck, A.J. "Muʿd̲j̲iza". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C. E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007.
- Denis Gril, Miracles, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Brill, 2007.
- Özdemir, Mehmet, (2007). Siyer Yazıcılığı Üzerine, Milel ve Nihal, 4 (3), 129-162
- Arberry, Arthur (1956). The Koran Interpreted. London. p. 191. ISBN 0-684-82507-4.
It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[clarification needed] - Syukron, Ahmad; Khairiyah, Nikmatul (31 August 2024). "Chronology of the Qur'an According to Theodor Nöldeke and Sir William Muir (Analysis of the History of the Qur'an and Life of Mahomet)". Archived from the original on 30 August 2024. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
- Siddiqui, M (2020). "Poetry, prophecy and the angelic voice: Reflections on the Divine Word" (PDF). Prophetic Witness and the Reimagining of the World: Poetry, Theology and Philosophy in Dialogue. 5: 61–74. doi:10.4324/9780367344092-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2024.
- FARRUGIA, MARISA (31 August 2024). "WAR AND PEACE IN PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIC POETRY" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 August 2024. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
- EL-AWAISI, Khalid (31 August 2024). "THE QURANIC PROPHECY OF THE DEFEAT AND VICTORY OF THE BYZANTINES". Mardin Artuklu University. Archived from the original on 21 February 2024. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
- Vgl. Martin 533
- Vgl. Neuwirth 177 und Grotzfeld 65.
- Larkin, Margaret (1988). "The Inimitability of the Qur'an: Two Perspectives". Religion & Literature. 20 (1): 31–47.
- Quran 17:88
- Vgl. Neuwirth 172-175.
- Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). The Qur'an: an encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 9780415326391.
- See:* Corbin 1993, p. 12
- Wild, Stefan (1996). The Quʼran as Text. Leiden: Brill. pp. 137, 138, 141, 147. ISBN 978-90-04-09300-3.
- Quran 2:97, 17:105
- Jenssen, H. (2001). "Arabic Language". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill. pp. 127–35.
- Quran 85:22
- Guillaume, Islam, 1954: p.74
- Pickthall, M.M. (1981). The Glorious Qur'an. Chicago IL: Iqra' Book Center. p. vii.
- Ibn Warraq, Why I'm Not a Muslim, 1995: p.105
- Patton, Ibn Ḥanbal and the Miḥna, 1897: p.54
- Ruthven, Malise (1984). Islam in the World. Oxford University Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-19-530503-6. Retrieved 28 February 2019.
- Mir Sajjad Ali; Zainab Rahman (2010). Islam and Indian Muslims. Kalpaz Publications. p. 21. ISBN 978-81-7835-805-5.
- LESTER, TOBY (January 1999). "What Is the Koran?". Atlantic. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
- Guessoum, Nidhal (June 2008). "ThE QUR'AN, SCIENCE, AND THE (RELATED)CONTEMPORARY MUSLIM DISCOURSE". Zygon. 43 (2): 411+. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2008.00925.x. ISSN 0591-2385. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
- SARDAR, ZIAUDDIN (21 August 2008). "Weird science". New Statesman. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
- Carroll, Jill. "The Quran & Hadith". World Religions. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
- Watton, Victor (1993), A student's approach to world religions: Islam, Hodder & Stoughton, p. 1. ISBN 978-0-340-58795-9
- Lambert, Gray (2013). The Leaders Are Coming!. WestBow Press. p. 287. ISBN 978-1-4497-6013-7.
- Roy H. Williams; Michael R. Drew (2012). Pendulum: How Past Generations Shape Our Present and Predict Our Future. Vanguard Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-59315-706-7.[permanent dead link]
- Corbin 1993, p. 30
- "Book 26, Hadith 1 Chapter: Regarding the virtue of knowledge". 31 August 2024.
- Jens Zimmermann, Hermeneutics: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2015, pg. 90
- "Translation of the Holy Quran: A Call for Standardization" (PDF).
- "Postmodernism Approach in Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh)" (PDF). 31 August 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 August 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- Seyyed Hossein Nasr (2015), The Study Quran, HarperCollins, p. 1578.
- "Afghan Quran-burning protests: What's the right way to dispose of a Quran?". Slate Magazine. 22 February 2012.
- Street, Brian V. (2001). Literacy and Development: Ethnographic Perspectives. p. 193.
- Sengers, Erik (2005). Dutch and Their Gods. p. 129.
- Mir, Mustansir. (1995). "Tafsīr". In John L. Esposito. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Farooqi, M.I.H. "Cedar or Lote-Tree in the Light of al-Quran–A Scientific Study". IRFI. Retrieved 20 February 2025.
- Godlas, Alan (2008). "No tile given". The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an (Paperback ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 350–362. ISBN 978-1-4051-8820-3.
- Sands, Kristin Zahra (2006). Sufi commentaries on the Qur'an in classical Islam (1. publ., transferred to digital print. ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-36685-4.
- Corbin 1993
- Quraishi, Asifa (2007). "Interpreting the Qur'an and the Constitution: Similarities in the Use of Text, Tradition, and Reason in Islamic and American Jurisprudence". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.963142. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 143088125.
- Nakissa, Aria (20 May 2019). "The Anthropology of Islamic Law: Education, Ethics, and Legal Interpretation at Egypt's Al-Azhar". Oxford Academic: 258. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190932886.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-093288-6. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
- Tabataba'I, Allamah. "The Outward and Inward Aspects of the Qur'an". Tafseer Al-Mizan <!-– Allamah Muhammad Hussein Tabatabai -->. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
- Mojaddedi, Jawid (2008). "No title given". The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an (Paperback ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 363–373. ISBN 978-1-4051-8820-3.
- Elias, Jamal (2010). "Sufi tafsir Reconsidered: Exploring the Development of a Genre". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 12 (1–2): 41–55. doi:10.3366/jqs.2010.0104.
- Aslan, Reza (20 November 2008). "How To Read the Quran". Slate. Retrieved 21 November 2008.
- Fatani, Afnan (2006), "Translation and the Qur'an", in Leaman, Oliver (ed.), The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia, New York: Routledge, pp. 657–69, ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1
- Al-Jarf, Reima. "Itineraries in the Translation History of the Quran: A guide for Translation Students" (PDF). ERIC Institute of Education Sciences. University of Tartu, Estonia. p. 5. Retrieved 22 August 2024.
There are occasional misinterpretations, mistranslations, and even distortions. Translating the meanings of the Holy Quran has always been challenging for translators, as the Quran has an exoteric and an esoteric meaning.
- "Ideologic Presuppositions Behind Translation: A Case Study of the Orientalist English Translations of the Quran" (PDF). 31 August 2024.
- "The ideological factor in the translation of sensitive issues from the Quran into English, Spanish and Catalan" (PDF). 31 August 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2024. Retrieved 22 August 2024.
- "The Virgins and the Grapes: the Christian Origins of the Koran". Archived from the original on 17 April 2009.
- An-Nawawi, Al-Majmu', (Cairo: Matba'at at-Tadamun n.d.), 380.
- "English Translations of the Quran". Monthly Crescent. July 2009. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014.
- C.E. Bosworth. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Al-Tabari, Abu Djafar Muhammad b. Djarir b. Yazid", Vol. 10, p. 14.
- "More than 300 publishers visit Quran exhibition in Iran". Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review. 12 August 2010.
- Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (2002). Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-300-09422-0.
- "Al-i-Imran (The Family of Imran) Part 1". Read Quran Online. Archived from the original on 18 November 2010. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
- Pal, Amaninder (5 May 2016) [4 April]. "Gurmukhi translation of Quran traced to Moga village". The Tribune. Archived from the original on 6 May 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- Alya Karame. "Qur'ans from the Eastern Islamic World between the 4th/10th and 6th/12th Centuries" (PDF). The University of Edinburgh. p. 109.
- Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006), The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia, New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1:
- "Art and the Qur'an" by Tamara Sonn, pp. 71–81;
- "Reading," by Stefan Wild, pp. 532–35.
- Thānawi, Qāri Izhār (21 January 2019). "The Great Imām of Qirā'ah: Muhammad Ibn al-Jazari". IlmGate. Retrieved 9 September 2020.
- Taha Shoeb (2 February 2018) [28 September 2017]. "Khalaf from Hamzah – A look at the features of recitation of al-Qur'an by Shahzada Husain Bhaisaheb". The Dawoodi Bohras. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020.
- Ejaz Taj (6 September 2018). "A Meeting with the Egyptian Giants, al-Minshāwī, al-Huṣrī, Muṣṭafā Ismāʿīl and ʿAbdul-Bāsit ʿAbdus-Ṣamad". islam21c.com. Archived from the original on 18 May 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
- Frishkopf, Michael (28 December 2009). "Mediated Qur'anic Recitation and the Contestation of Islam in Contemporary Egypt". In Nooshin, Laundan (ed.). In Music and Play of Power in the Middle East. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7546-3457-7. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 – via pdfslide.net.
- "Best Quran Recitation Competition for Students Planned in Egypt". iqna.ir. 4 May 2020. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020.
- Nelson, Kristina (2001). The art of reciting the Qur'an (New ed.). Cairo [u.a.]: American Univ. in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-424-594-7.
- Rippin 2006:
- "Written Transmission," by François Déroche, pp. 172–87.
- "Recitation," by Anna M. Gade, pp. 481–93
- Small, Keith E. (2011). Textual Criticism and Qur'an Manuscripts. Lexington Books. pp. 109–111. ISBN 978-0-7391-4291-2.
- Melchert, Christopher (2008). "The Relation of the Ten Readings to One Another". Journal of Quranic Studies. 10 (2): 73–87. doi:10.3366/e1465359109000424.
- Hekmat Nasser, Shady (2012). The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Quran: The Problem of Tawatur and the Emergence of Shawdhdh. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 978-90-04-24081-0.
- Al-Hurr al-Amili, Muhammad (2003). Combat with the Self. Saqi Books (November 8, 2003). ISBN 978-1904063148. Archived from the original on 9 October 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2024.
- Dutton, Yasin (2001). "An Early Mushaf According To The Reading Of Ibn ʻAmir". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 3 (2): 71–89. doi:10.3366/jqs.2001.3.1.71.
- Rabb, Intisar (2006). "Non-Canonical Readings of the Qur'an: Recognition and Authenticity (The Ḥimṣī Reading)". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 8 (2): 88–127. doi:10.3366/jqs.2006.8.2.84.
- Ibn Taymiyyah, Ahmed (2004). Majmoo' al-Fatawa (in Arabic). Vol. 12. Madinah, Saudi Arabia: King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran. pp. 576–578.
- Déroche, François (2006). "Written Transmission". In Rippin, Andrew; et al. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an (2a reimpr. ed.). Blackwell. pp. 172–87. ISBN 978-1-4051-1752-4.
- Riddell, Peter G.; Street, Tony; Johns, Anthony Hearle (1997). Islam: essays on scripture, thought and society: a festschrift in honour of Anthony H. Johns. Leiden: Brill. pp. 170–74. ISBN 978-90-04-10692-5.
The Quran also romanized Qur an or Koran is the central religious text of Islam believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God Allah It is organized in 114 chapters surah pl suwer which consist of individual verses ayah Besides its religious significance it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature and has significantly influenced the Arabic language It is the object of a modern field of academic research known as Quranic studies QuranArabic ٱل ق ر آن romanized al QurʾanTwo folios of the Birmingham Quran manuscript an early manuscript written in Hijazi script likely dated within Muhammad s lifetime between c 568 645InformationReligionIslamLanguageClassical ArabicPeriod610 632 CEChapters114 list See SurahVerses6 348 including the basmala 6 236 excluding the basmala See AyahFull textQuran at Arabic WikisourceQuran at English Wikisource Muslims believe the Quran was orally revealed by God to the final Islamic prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel incrementally over a period of some 23 years beginning on the Laylat al Qadr when Muhammad was 40 and concluding in 632 the year of his death Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad s most important miracle a proof of his prophethood and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to the first Islamic prophet Adam including the holy books of the Torah Psalms and Gospel in Islam The Quran is believed by Muslims to be God s own divine speech providing a complete code of conduct across all facets of life This has led Muslim theologians to fiercely debate whether the Quran was created or uncreated According to tradition several of Muhammad s companions served as scribes recording the revelations Shortly after Muhammad s death the Quran was compiled on the order of the first caliph Abu Bakr r 632 634 by the companions who had written down or memorized parts of it Caliph Uthman r 644 656 established a standard version now known as the Uthmanic codex which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today There are however variant readings with some differences in meaning The Quran assumes the reader s familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical and apocryphal texts It summarizes some dwells at length on others and in some cases presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance for humankind 2 185 It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence Supplementing the Quran with explanations for some cryptic Quranic narratives and rulings that also provide the basis for Islamic law in most denominations of Islam are hadiths oral and written traditions believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad During prayers the Quran is recited only in Arabic Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz Ideally verses are recited with a special kind of prosody reserved for this purpose called tajwid During the month of Ramadan Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse Muslims rely on exegesis or commentary rather than a direct translation of the text Etymology and meaningThe word qur an appears about 70 times in the Quran itself assuming various meanings It is a verbal noun maṣdar of the Arabic verb qara a قرأ meaning he read or he recited The Syriac equivalent is qeryana ܩܪܝܢܐ which refers to scripture reading or lesson While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qara a itself Regardless it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad s lifetime An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting as reflected in an early Quranic passage It is for Us to collect it and to recite it qur anahu In other verses the word refers to an individual passage recited by Muhammad Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages for example So when al qur an is recited listen to it and keep silent The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning but its use may converge with that of qur an in certain contexts Such terms include kitab book ayah sign and surah scripture the latter two terms also denote units of revelation In the large majority of contexts usually with a definite article al the word is referred to as the waḥy revelation that which has been sent down tanzil at intervals Other related words include dhikr remembrance used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning and ḥikmah wisdom sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it The Quran describes itself as the discernment al furqan the mother book umm al kitab the guide huda the wisdom hikmah the remembrance dhikr and the revelation tanzil something sent down signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place Another term is al kitab The Book though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures such as the Torah and the Gospels The term mus haf written work is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books HistoryProphetic era Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in 610 CE in the Cave of Hira on the Night of Power during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains Thereafter he received revelations over a period of 23 years According to hadith traditions ascribed to Muhammad and Muslim history after Muhammad and his followers immigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws which were revealed daily It is related that some of the Quraysh who were taken prisoners at the Battle of Badr regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate As it was initially spoken the Quran was recorded on tablets bones and the wide flat ends of date palm fronds Most suras also usually transliterated as Surah were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources relating Muhammad s use of the Quran as a call to Islam the making of prayer and the manner of recitation However the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad s death in 632 at age 61 62 There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation Traditionally believed to be Muhammad s first revelation Sura Al Alaq later placed 96th in the Quranic regulations in current writing style Sahih al Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as Sometimes it is revealed like the ringing of a bell and A isha reported I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead as the Inspiration was over Muhammad s first revelation according to the Quran was accompanied with a vision The agent of revelation is mentioned as the one mighty in power the one who grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon Then he drew nigh and came down till he was distant two bows length or even nearer The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad s condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine because he was severely disturbed after these revelations According to Welch these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad s inspirations However Muhammad s critics accused him of being a possessed man a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad s initial claim of prophethood The Quran describes Muhammad as ummi which is traditionally interpreted as illiterate but the meaning is rather more complex Medieval commentators such as al Tabari d 923 maintained that the term induced two meanings first the inability to read or write in general second the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures but they gave priority to the first meaning Muhammad s illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood For example according to Fakhr al Din al Razi if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors Some scholars such as W Montgomery Watt prefer the second meaning of ummi they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of Dhu al Hijjah in the year 10 A H a date that roughly corresponds to February or March 632 The verse was revealed after the Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm According to Islamic tradition the Quran was revealed to Muhammad in seven different ahruf meaning letters however it could mean dialects forms styles or modes Most Islamic scholars agree that these different ahruf are the same Quran revealed in seven different Arabic dialects and that they do not change the meaning of the Quran the purpose of which was to make the Quran easy for recitation and memorization among the different Arab tribes While Sunni Muslims believe in the seven ahruf some Shia reject the idea of seven Quranic variants A common misconception is that the seven ahruf and the qira at are the same Compilation and preservation Following Muhammad s death in 632 a number of his companions who memorized the Quran were killed in the Battle of al Yamama by Musaylima The first caliph Abu Bakr r 632 634 subsequently decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved Zayd ibn Thabit d 655 was the person to collect the Quran since he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah s Apostle Thus a group of scribes most importantly Zayd collected the verses and produced a hand written manuscript of the complete book The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died Zayd s reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments palm leaf stalks thin stones collectively known as suhuf any written work containing divine teachings and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives In 644 Muhammad s widow Hafsa bint Umar was entrusted with the manuscript until the third caliph Uthman r 644 656 requested the standard copy from her According to historian Michael Cook early Muslim narratives about the collection and compilation of the Quran sometimes contradict themselves Most make Uthman little more than an editor but there are some in which he appears very much a collector appealing to people to bring him any bit of the Quran they happen to possess Some accounts also suggest that in fact the material Abu Bakr worked with had already been assembled which since he was the first caliph would mean they were collected when Muhammad was still alive Around the 650s the Islamic expansion beyond the Arabian Peninsula and into Persia the Levant and North Africa as well as the use of the seven ahruf had caused some confusion and differences in the pronunciation of the Qur an and conflict was arising between different Arab tribes due to some claiming to be more superior to other Arab tribes and non Arabs based on dialect which Uthman noticed In order to preserve the sanctity of the text he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr s copy and prepare a standard text of the Quran Thus within 20 years of Muhammad s death in 632 the complete Quran was committed to written form as the Uthmanic codex That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world and other versions are believed to have been destroyed and the six other ahruf of the Qur an fell out of use The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr Quran in Mashhad Iran said to be written by Ali Qira at which is a way and method of reciting the Qur an was developed sometime afterwards There are ten canonical recitations and they are not to be confused with ahruf Shias recite the Quran according to the qira at of Hafs on authority of Asim which is the prevalent qira at in the Islamic world and believe that the Quran was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime It is claimed that the Shia had more than 1 000 hadiths ascribed to the Shia Imams which indicate the distortion of the Quran and according to Etan Kohlberg this belief about Quran was common among Shiites in the early centuries of Islam In his view Ibn Babawayh was the first major Twelver author to adopt a position identical to that of the Sunnis and the change was a result of the rise to power of the Sunni Abbasid caliphate whence belief in the corruption of the Quran became untenable vis a vis the position of Sunni orthodoxy Alleged distortions have been carried out to remove any references to the rights of Ali the Imams and their supporters and the disapproval of enemies such as Umayyads and Abbasids Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas ud s and Ubay ibn Ka b s codex none of which exist today Academic researchStudies on the Qur an rarely went beyond textual criticism when Until the early 1970s non Muslim scholars of Islam while not accepting traditional explanations for divine intervention accepted the above mentioned traditional origin story in most details The basmala as written on the Birmingham mus haf manuscript one of the oldest surviving copies of the Qur an Rasm ٮسم الله الرحمں الرحىم University of Chicago professor Fred Donner states that T here was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾan from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission After the creation of this standardized canonical text earlier authoritative texts were suppressed and all extant manuscripts despite their numerous variants seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted some still are There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based A page from the Sanaa manuscript Possibly the oldest best preserved and most comprehensive Islamic archaeological document to date The double layer reveals additions to the original text and multiple differences with today s Quran In 1972 in a mosque in the city of Sana a Yemen manuscripts consisting of 12 000 pieces were discovered that were later proven to be the oldest Quranic text known to exist at the time The Sana a manuscripts contain palimpsests manuscript pages from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again a practice which was common in ancient times due to the scarcity of writing material However the faint washed off underlying text scriptio inferior is still barely visible Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability The German scholar Gerd R Puin has been investigating these Quran fragments for years His research team made 35 000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts which he dated to the early part of the 8th century Puin has noted unconventional verse orderings minor textual variations and rare styles of orthography and suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one It is also possible that the content of the Quran itself may provides data regarding the date of writing of the text For example sources based on some archaeological data give the construction date of Masjid al Haram an architectural work mentioned 16 times in the Quran as 78 AH an additional finding that sheds light on the evolutionary history of the Quran mentioned which is known to continue even during the time of Hajjaj in a similar situation that can be seen with al Aksa though different suggestions have been put forward to explain In 2015 a single folio of a very early Quran dating back to 1370 years earlier was discovered in the library of the University of Birmingham England According to the tests carried out by the Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit with a probability of more than 95 the parchment was from between 568 and 645 The manuscript is written in Hijazi script an early form of written Arabic This possibly was one of the earliest extant exemplars of the Quran but as the tests allow a range of possible dates it cannot be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest Saudi scholar Saud al Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later The Birmingham manuscript caused excitement amongst believers because of its potential overlapping with the dominant tradition over the lifetime of Muhammad c 570 to 632 CE and used as evidence to support conventional wisdom and to refute the revisionists views that expresses findings and views different from the traditional approach to the early history of the Quran and Islam ContentsThe Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of God and the resurrection Narratives of the early prophets ethical and legal subjects historical events of Muhammad s time charity and prayer also appear in the Quran The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons The style of the Quran has been called allusive with commentaries needed to explain what is being referred to events are referred to but not narrated disagreements are debated without being explained people and places are mentioned but rarely named While tafsir in Islamic sciences expresses the effort to understand the implied and implicit expressions of the Quran fiqh refers to the efforts to expand the meaning of expressions especially in the verses related to the provisions as well as understanding it Solomon the son of David king of Judah had his temple built which is still the subject of intercultural heritage fights today under the name of Al Aqsa and placed different idols there for his multinational wives according to the Bible Here he meets the legendary figure Bilqis by Edward Poynter 1890 Quranic studies state that in the historical context the content of the Quran is related to Rabbinic Jewish Christian Syriac Christian and Hellenic literature as well as pre Islamic Arabia Many places subjects and mythological figures in the culture of Arabs and many nations in their historical neighbourhoods especially Judeo Christian stories are included in the Quran with small allusions references or sometimes small narratives such as jannat ʿadn jahannam Seven Sleepers Queen of Sheba etc However some philosophers and scholars such as Mohammed Arkoun who emphasize the mythological content of the Quran are met with rejectionist attitudes in Islamic circles The stories of Yusuf and Zulaikha Moses Family of Amram parents of Mary according to the Quran and mysterious heroDhul Qarnayn the man with two horns who built a barrier against Gog and Magog that will remain until the end of time are more detailed and longer stories Apart from semi historical events and characters such as King Solomon and David about Jewish history as well as the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt tales of the hebrew prophets accepted in Islam such as Creation the Flood struggle of Abraham with Nimrod sacrifice of his son occupy a wide place in the Quran Creation and God The central theme of the Quran is monotheism God is depicted as living eternal omniscient and omnipotent see e g Quran 2 20 2 29 2 255 God s omnipotence appears above all in his power to create He is the creator of everything of the heavens and the earth and what is between them see e g Quran 13 16 2 253 50 38 etc All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God and their well being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God Therefore the universe is originated and needs an originator and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence Besides the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony You cannot see any fault in God s creation then look again Can you see any flaw The word Allah in Arabic calligraphy Most considered it to be derived from a contraction of the definitive article al and ilah god meaning the God Even though Muslims do not doubt about the existence and unity of God they may have adopted different attitudes that have changed and developed throughout history regarding his nature attributes names and relationship with creation Rabb is an Arabic word to refers to God meaning Lord and the Quran cites in several places as in the Al Fatiha All Praise and Gratitude is due to God Lord of all the Universe Mustafa Ozturk points out that the first Muslims believed that this god lived in the sky with the following words of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal Whoever says that Allah is everywhere is a heretic an infidel He should be invited to repent but if he does not be killed This understanding changes later and gives way to the understanding that God cannot be assigned a place and He is everywhere Also actions and attributes suh as coming going sitting satisfaction anger and sadness etc similar to humans used for this God in the Quran were considered mutashabihat no one knows its interpretation except God Quran 3 7 by later scholars stating that God was free from resemblance to humans in any way Prophets In Islam God speaks to people called prophets through a kind of revelation called wahy or through angels 42 51 nubuwwah Arabic نبوة prophethood is seen as a duty imposed by God on individuals who have some characteristics such as intelligence honesty fortitude and justice Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty citation needed Islam regards Abraham as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad via Ishmael and mentioned in 35 chapters of the Quran more often than any other biblical personage apart from Moses Muslims regard him as a hanif an archetype of the perfect Muslim and revered prophet and builder of the Kaaba in Mecca The Quran consistently refers to Islam as the religion of Abraham millat Ibrahim In Islam Eid al Adha is celebrated to commemorate Abraham s attempt to sacrifice his son by surrendering in line with his dream As Saaffat 100 107 which he accepted as the will of God Asiya and her servants finding baby Moses in the Nile Jami al tawarikh a story that follows the footsteps of Sargon of Akkad s mythological accounts possibly pious fiction In Islam Moses is a prominent prophet and messenger of God and the most frequently mentioned individual in the Quran with his name being mentioned 136 times and his life being narrated and recounted more than that of any other prophet Stories of the prophets in the Quran often revolve around a certain pattern according to which a prophet is sent to a group of people who then reject or attack him and ultimately suffer extinction as God s punishment However the Quran given its paraenetic character does not offer a full narrative but rather offers a parabolic reference to the doom of previous generations assuming the audience is familiar with the told stories Ethico religious concepts While belief in God and obedience to the prophets are the main emphasis in the prophetic stories there are also non prophetic stories in the Quran that emphasize the importance of humility and having profound inner knowledge hikmah besides trusting in God This is the main theme in the stories of Khidr Luqman and Dhul Qarnayn According to the later ascriptions to these stories it is possible for those with this knowledge and divine support to teach the prophets Khidr Moses story Quran 18 65 82 and employ jinn Dhul Qarnayn Those who spend their wealth on people who are in need because they devoted their lives to the way of Allah and whose situation is unknown because they are ashamed to ask will be rewarded by Allah Al Baqara 272 274 In the story of Qarun the person who avoids searching for the afterlife with his wealth and becomes arrogant will be punished arrogance befits only God Al Mutakabbir Characters of the stories can be closed mythical Khidr demi mythologic or combined characters and it can also be seen that they are Islamized While some believe he was a prophet some researchers equate Luqman with the Alcmaeon of Croton or Aesop Commanding ma ruf and forbidding munkar Ar ٱل أ م ر ب ٱل م ع ر وف و ٱلن ه ي ع ن ٱل م ن ك ر is repeated or referred to in nearly 30 verses in different contexts in the Quran and is an important part of Islamist jihadist indoctrination today as well as Shiite teachings Although a common translation of the phrase is Enjoining good and forbidding evil the words used by Islamic philosophy determining good and evil in discourses are husn and qubh The word ma ruf literally means known or what is approved because of its familiarity for a certain society and its antithesis munkar means what is disapproved because it is unknown and extraneous Abraham sacrificing his son Ishmael and cast into fire by Nimrod a Quranic character whose many stories continue to influence the religious behavior of Muslims the fight against idolatry animal sacrifices and the circumcision of male children A miniature from The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic law sharia Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the salat and fasting in the month of Ramadan As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted the Quran refers to prostration The term chosen for charity zakat literally means purification implies that it is a self purification In fiqh the term fard is used for clear imperative provisions based on the Quran However it is not possible to say that the relevant verses are understood in the same way by all segments of Islamic commentators For example Hanafis accept 5 daily prayers as fard However some religious groups such as Quranists and Shiites who do not doubt that the Quran existing today is a religious source infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray 2 or 3 times not 5 times About six verses adress to the way a woman should dress when in public Some Muslim scholars consider this verse referring to the Hijab while others to clothings in general Research shows that the rituals in the Quran along with laws such as qisas and tax zakat developed as an evolution of pre Islamic Arabian rituals Arabic words meaning pilgrimage hajj prayer salat and charity zakat can be seen in pre Islamic Safaitic Arabic inscriptions and this continuity can be observed in many details especially in hajj and umrah As a source of law and judgment A small number of verses in the Quran are about general rules of governance inheritance marriage crime and punishment Although the Quran does not impose a specific legal management system it emphasizes custom in nearly 40 verses and commands justice An Nahl 90 The practices prescribed in the Quran are considered as reflections of contextual legal understandings as can be clearly seen in some examples such as Qisas and Diya The following statement in the Quran is thought to be the general rule of testimony in Islamic jurisprudence except for crime and punishment for example debt shopping etc O believers When you contract a loan for a fixed period of time commit it to writing with justice Call upon two of your men to witness If two men cannot be found then one man and two women of your choice will witness so if one of the women forgets the other may remind her Quran 4 11 As a different example in the necklace story of Aisha called Asbab al Nuzul for surah An Nur 11 20 four witnesses were required for the accusation of adultery In addition those who made accusations that did not meet the specified conditions would be punished with 80 lashes The jurisprudence of later periods stipulates that witnesses must be men covering all hadd crimes and people who did not have credibility and honesty in society slaves non adl sinners infidels could not testify against believers In addition the Islamic judiciary did not require proof of the issues defined as tazir 45 The statement in the Qur an that determines the status of slaves in community is Ma malakat aymanuhum meaning those whom your right hands possess The widespread use of slavery in the Islamic world continued until the last century and the unrestricted sexual use of female slaves with a few exceptions such as they couldn t be loaned out in traditional islamic jurisprudence while stated today often that sharia provides many rights to slaves and aims to eradicate slavery over time Sharia is a collection of laws and rules created by scholars interpretations on the Qur an and hadith collections and has been developed over the centuries changing according to different geographies and societies Fiqh sects are schools of understanding that try to determine the actions that people should do or avoid based on the Quran and hadiths The place of hadiths in legislation is controversial for example in the Hanafi sect in order to claim that something is obligatory that issue must be clearly expressed in the Quran Some of these results may also indicate exaggeration of statements generalizations taken out of context and imperative broadening of scope Of the few criminal cases listed as crimes in the Quran only a few of them are punished by the classical books of sharia as determined by the verses of the Quran and are called hudud laws How the verse Al Ma idah 33 which describes the crime of hirabah should be understood is a matter of debate even today The verse talks about the punishment of criminals by killing hanging having their hands and feet cut off on opposite sides and being exiled from the earth in response to an abstract crime such as fighting against Allah and His Messenger Expanding or narrowing the conditions and scope of this crime according to new situations and universal legal standards are issues that continue to be discussed today such as punishing in addition to rebellion against the legitimate government on concrete sequential criminal acts ie massacre robbery and rape as preconditions Although the constitutions of most Muslim majority states contain references to sharia its rules are largely preserved only in family law and criminal law in some The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought calls by Islamic movements for the full implementation of sharia including corporal punishment such as stoning for adultery through a variety of propaganda methods from civic political activities to terrorism Eschatology The doctrine of the last day and eschatology the final fate of the universe may be considered the second great doctrine of the Quran It is estimated that approximately one third of the Quran is eschatological dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul since man s existence is dependent on the will of God when he wills he causes man to die and when he wills he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection Map by Pierre Daniel Huet 1700 locating Garden of Eden as described in Genesis 2 10 14 also mentioned with the same name jannat ʿadn in the Quran with the difference is that it was not the place where Adam and Eve were sent down on earth but the garden promised to believers after death Al Kahf 30 31 In the Quran belief in the afterlife is often referred in conjunction with belief in God Believe in God and the last day emphasizing what is considered impossible is easy in the sight of God A number of suras such as 44 56 75 78 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day referred to in various ways It is the Day of Judgment the Last Day the Day of Resurrection or simply the Hour Less frequently it is the Day of Distinction the Day of the Gathering or the Day of the Meeting Text and arrangementThe Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths known as a surah Each surah consists of verses known as ayat which originally means a sign or evidence sent by God The number of verses differs from surah to surah An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines The total number of verses in the most popular Hafs Quran is 6 236 however the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77 430 words 18 994 unique words 12 183 stems 3 382 lemmas and 1 685 roots Belqeys Queen of Sheba one of the legendary figures in the Bible whose story is told without naming in the Quran lying in a garden facing a hoopoe Solomon s messenger Persian miniature c 1595 Chapters are classified as Meccan or Medinan depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina on traditional account However a surah classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa Surah names are derived from a name or a character in the text or from the first letters or words of the surah Chapters are not arranged in chronological order rather the chapters appear to be arranged roughly in order of decreasing size Each surah except the ninth starts with the Bismillah ب س م ٱلل ه ٱلر ح م ن ٱلر ح يم an Arabic phrase meaning In the name of God There are however still 114 occurrences of the Bismillah in the Quran due to its presence in Quran 27 30 as the opening of Solomon s letter to the Queen of Sheba The Muqattaʿat Arabic حروف مقطعات ḥuruf muqaṭṭaʿat disjoined letters disconnected letters also mysterious letters are combinations of between one and five Arabic letters figuring at the beginning of 29 out of the 114 chapters of the Quran just after the basmala The letters are also known as fawatih فواتح or openers as they form the opening verse of their respective suras Four surahs are named for their muqatta at Ṭaʾ Haʾ Yaʾ Sin Ṣad and Qaf Various theories have been put forward they were a secret communication language between Allah and Muhammad abbreviations of various names or attributes of Allah symbols of the versions of the Quran belonging to different companions elements of a secret coding system or expressions containing esoteric meanings Some researchers associate them with hymns used in Syrian Christianity The phrases must have been part of these hymns or abbreviations of frequently repeated introductory phrases Some of them such as Nun were used in symbolic meanings In addition of the division into chapters there are various ways of dividing Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading The 30 juz plural ajzaʼ can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month A juz is sometimes further divided into two ḥizb plural aḥzab and each hizb subdivided into four rubʻ al ahzab The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts manzil plural manazil for it to be recited in a week A different structure is provided by semantic units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten ayat each Such a section is called a ruku Literary style Boys studying the Quran in Touba Senegal The Quran s message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices In the original Arabic the suras and verses employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience s efforts to recall the message of the text Muslims who assert according to the Quran itself that the Quranic content and style is inimitable The language of the Quran has been described as rhymed prose as it partakes of both poetry and prose however this description runs the risk of failing to convey the rhythmic quality of Quranic language which is more poetic in some parts and more prose like in others Rhyme while found throughout the Quran is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Sura 81 and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository The Quranic text seems to have no beginning middle or end its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit lack of continuity absence of any chronological or thematic order and repetitiousness Michael Sells citing the work of the critic Norman O Brown acknowledges Brown s observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells s phrase is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated Sells also addresses the much discussed repetitiveness of the Quran seeing this too as a literary device A text is self referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself According to Stefan Wild the Quran demonstrates this metatextuality by explaining classifying interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted Self referentiality is evident in those passages where the Quran refers to itself as revelation tanzil remembrance dhikr news naba criterion furqan in a self designating manner explicitly asserting its Divinity And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down so are you now denying it or in the frequent appearance of the Say tags when Muhammad is commanded to speak e g Say God s guidance is the true guidance Say Would you then dispute with us concerning God According to Wild the Quran is highly self referential The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras Inimitability In Islam i jaz Arabic ا ل إ ع ج از inimitability challenge of the Qur an in sense of feṣaḥa and belagha both eloquence and rhetoric is the doctrine which holds that the Qur an has a miraculous quality both in content and in form that no human speech can match According to this the Qur an is a miracle and its inimitability is the proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status The literary quality of the Qur an has been praised by Muslim scholars and by many non Muslim scholars The doctrine of the miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad s illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran Splitting of the Moon Muhammad with hidden face 16th century falnama A possible idiom Surah Al Qamar 54 1 2 also mentioned in Imru al Qais poems was understood as the physical disintegration and supported by hadiths despite the Quran itself deniesmiracles in the traditional sense The Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature The emergence of the Qur an was an oral and aural poetic experience the aesthetic experience of reciting and hearing the Qur an is often regarded as one of the main reasons behind conversion to Islam in the early days Pre Islamic Arabic poetry was an element of challenge propaganda and warfare and those who incapacitated their opponents from doing the same in feṣaḥa and belagha socially honored as could be seen on Mu allaqat poets The etymology of the word sha ir poet connotes the meaning of a man of inspirational knowledge of unseen powers To the early Arabs poetry was ṣihr ḥalal and the poet was a genius who had supernatural communications with the jinn or spirits the muses who inspired him Although pre Islamic Arabs gave poets status associated with suprahuman beings soothsayers and prophecies were seen as persons of lower status Contrary to later hurufic and recent scientific prophecy claims traditional miracle statements about the Quran hadn t focused on prophecies with a few exceptions like the Byzantine victory over the Persians in wars that continued for hundreds of years with mutual victories and defeats The first works about the i jaz of the Quran began to appear in the 9th century in the Mu tazila circles which emphasized only its literary aspect and were adopted by other religious groups According to grammarian the eloquence contained in the Quran consisted of tashbih istiʿara taǧanus mubalaġa concision clarity of speech bayan and talaʾum He also added other features developed by himself the free variation of themes taṣrif al maʿani the implication content taḍmin of the expressions and the rhyming closures fawaṣil The most famous works on the doctrine of inimitability are two medieval books by the grammarian Al Jurjani d 1078 CE Dala il al i jaz the Arguments of Inimitability and Asraral balagha the Secrets of Eloquence Al Jurjani believed that Qur an s eloquence must be a certain special quality in the manner of its stylistic arrangement and composition or a certain special way of joining words Angelika Neuwirth lists the factors that led to the emergence of the doctrine of i jaz The necessity of explaining some challenging verses in the Quran In the context of the emergence of the theory of proofs of prophecy da il an nubuwwa in Islamic theology proving that the Quran is a work worthy of the emphasized superior place of Muhammad in the history of the prophets thus gaining polemical superiority over Jews and Christians Preservation of Arab national pride in the face of confrontation with the Iranian Shu ubiyya movement etc Orientalist scholars Theodor Noldeke Friedrich Schwally and John Wansbrough pointing out linguistic defects held a similar opinions on Qur anic text as careless and imperfect Significance in IslamTalismanic tunic North India Deccan Metropolitan Museum Quran says We have sent down the Quran in truth and with the truth it has come down and frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained The Quran speaks of a written pre text that records God s speech before it is sent down the preserved tablet that is the basis of the belief in fate also and Muslims believe that the Quran was sent down or started to be sent down on the Laylat al Qadr Revered by pious Muslims as the holy of holies whose sound moves some to tears and ecstasy it is the physical symbol of the faith the text often used as a charm on occasions of birth death marriage Traditionally before starting to read the Quran ablution is performed one seeks refuge in Allah from the accursed Satan and the reading begins by mentioning the names of Allah Rahman and Rahim together known as basmala Consequently It must never rest beneath other books but always on top of them one must never drink or smoke when it is being read aloud and it must be listened to in silence It is a talisman against disease and disaster According to Islam the Quran is the word of God Kalam Allah Its nature and whether it was created became a matter of fierce debate among religious scholars and with the involvement of the political authority in the discussions some Muslim religious scholars who stood against the political stance faced religious persecution during the caliph al Ma mun period and the following years Muslims believe that the present Quranic text corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad and according to their interpretation of Quran 15 9 it is protected from corruption Indeed it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed We will be its guardians Muslims consider the Quran to be a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion For this reason in traditional Islamic societies great importance was given to children memorizing the Quran and those who memorized the entire Quran were honored with the title of hafiz Even today millions of Muslims frequently refer to the Quran to justify their actions and desires and see it as the source of scientific knowledge though some refer to it as weird or pseudoscience Muslims believe the Quran to be God s literal words a complete code of life the final revelation to humanity a work of divine guidance revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel On the other hand it is believed in Muslim community that full understanding of it can only be possible with the depths obtained in the basic and religious sciences that the ulema imams in shia might access as heirs of the prophets For this reason direct reading of the Quran or applications based on its literal translations are considered problematic except for some groups such as Quranists thinking that the Quran is a complete and clear book and tafsir fiqh are brought fore to correct understandings in it With a classical approach scholars will discuss verses of the Qur an in context called asbab al nuzul in islamic literature as well as language and linguistics will pass it through filters such as muhkam and mutashabih nasikh and abrogated will open the closed expressions and try to guide the believers There is no standardization in Qur an translations and interpretations range from traditional scholastic to literalist salafist understandings to Esoteric Sufist to modern and secular exegesis according to the personal scientific depth and tendencies of scholars In worship Surah Al Fatiha the first chapter of the Quran is recited in full in every rakat of salah and on other occasions This sura which consists of seven verses is the most often recited surah of the Quran While standing in prayers worshipers recite the first chapter of the Quran al Fatiha followed by any other section source source track track track track Recitation of Al Fatiha in mujawwad ب س م ٱلل ه ٱلر ح م ن ٱلر ح يم ٱل ح م د ل ل ه ر ب ٱل ع ل م ين ٱلر ح م ن ٱلر ح يم م ل ك ي و م ٱلد ين إ ي اك ن ع ب د و إ ي اك ن س ت ع ين ٱه د ن ا ٱلص ر ط ٱل م س ت ق يم ص ر ط ٱل ذ ين أ ن ع م ت ع ل ي ه م غ ي ر ٱل م غ ض وب ع ل ي ه م و ل ا ٱلض آل ين In the Name of Allah the Entirely Merciful the Especially Merciful All praise is due to Allah Lord of the worlds The Entirely Merciful the Especially Merciful Sovereign of the Day of Recompense It is You we worship and You we ask for help Guide us to the straight path The path of those upon whom You have bestowed favor not of those who have evoked Your anger or of those who are astray Quran 1 1 7 Sahih International English translation Other sections of the Quran of choice are also read in daily prayers Sura Al Ikhlaṣ is second in frequency of Qur an recitation for according to many early authorities Muhammad said that Ikhlaṣ is equivalent to one third of the whole Quran ق ل ه و ٱلل ه أ ح د ٱلل ه ٱلص م د ل م ی ل د و ل م ی ول د و ل م ی ك ن ل ه ۥ ك ف و ا أ ح د Say O Prophet He is God One and Indivisible God the Sustainer needed by all He has never had offspring nor was He born And there is none comparable to Him Surah Al Ikhlaṣ 112 1 4 The Clear Quran English translation Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims and the Quran is treated with reverence Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran 56 79 none shall touch but those who are clean some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water wudu or ghusl before touching a copy of the Quran although this view is not universal Worn out and old copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water While praying the Quran is only recited in Arabic In Islam most intellectual disciplines including Islamic theology philosophy mysticism and jurisprudence have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called ajr thawab or hasanat In Islamic art The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination The Quran is never decorated with figurative images but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page or between the lines or at the start of suras Islamic verses appear in many other media on buildings and on objects of all sizes such as mosque lamps metal work pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums Calligraphy 18th century Brooklyn Museum Quranic inscriptions Bara Gumbad mosque Delhi India Typical mosque lamp of enamelled glass with the Ayat an Nur or Verse of Light 24 35 Quran page decoration art Ottoman period Quranic verses Shahizinda mausoleum Samarkand Uzbekistan The leaves from Quran written in gold and contoured with brown ink with a horizontal format suited to classical Kufic calligraphy which became common under the early Abbasid caliphs 9th century Quran in the Reza Abbasi Museum Shikasta nastaliq script 18th 19th centuriesInterpretationTafsir Arabic تفسير romanized tafsir tafˈsiːr English explanation refers to an exegesis or commentary of the Quran An author of a tafsir is a mufassir Arabic م فس ر plural Arabic مفس رون romanized mufassirun A Quranic tafsir attempts to provide elucidation explanation interpretation context or commentary for clear understanding and conviction of God s will in Islam Principally a tafsir deals with the issues of linguistics jurisprudence and theology In terms of perspective and approach tafsir can be broadly divided into two main categories namely tafsir bi al ma thur lit received tafsir which is transmitted from the early days of Islam through the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions and tafsir bi al ra y lit tafsir by opinion which is arrived through personal reflection or independent rational thinking There are different characteristics and traditions for each of the tafsirs representing respective schools and doctrines such as Sunni Islam Shia Islam and Sufism There are also general distinctions between classic tafsirs compiled by authoritative figures of Muslim scholarship during the formative ages of Islam and modern tafsir which seeks to address a wider audience including the common people Exoteric and Esoteric interpretations ta wil A cedar in Lebanon Lebanon s sacred tree Translations made through modern Arabic unaware of the cultural background and etymological development of the words and symbols that make up the language can turn Qur anic Sidrat al Muntaha into the Lote tree Commentaries dealing with the zahir outward aspects of the text are called tafsir explanation and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta wil interpretation Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God Esoteric or Sufi interpretation relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric batin and metaphysical dimensions of existence and consciousness According to Sands esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative and are allusions isharat rather than explanations tafsir They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of writers Shias and Sunnis as well as some Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect 7 In contrast Quranic literalism followed by Salafis and Zahiris is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings 7 According to esoteric interpreters the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning Rather it is like the soul which gives life to the body Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy because Gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology 13 Notable Sufi commentaries One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is al Sulami s d 1021 book named Haqaiq al Tafsir Truths of Exegesis is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis From the 11th century onwards several other works appear including commentaries by Qushayri d 1074 d 1193 d 1209 and Al Suhrawardi d 1234 These works include material from Sulami s books plus the author s contributions Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Al Maybudi d 1135 kashf al asrar the unveiling of the secrets Rumi d 1273 wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book Mathnawi which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran Simnani d 1336 tried reconciliation of God s manifestation through and in the physical world notions with the sentiments of Sunni Islam Ismail Hakki Bursevi s d 1725 work ruh al Bayan the Spirit of Elucidation is a voluminous exegesis written in Arabic combines the author s own ideas with those of his predecessors notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali TranslationsShia Muslim girls reciting the Quran placed atop folding lecterns rehal during Ramadan in the city of Qom Iran Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form An Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context making an accurate translation difficult Moreover one of the biggest difficulties in understanding the Quran for those who do not know its language in the face of shifts in linguistic usage over the centuries is semantic translations meanings that include the translator s contributions to the relevant text instead of literal ones Although the author s contributions are often bracketed and shown separately the author s individual tendencies may also come to the fore in making sense of the main text These studies contain reflections and even distortions caused by the region sect education ideology and knowledge of the people who made them and efforts to reach the real content are drowned in the details of volumes of commentaries These distortions can manifest themselves in many areas of belief and practices Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran In early centuries the permissibility of translations was not an issue but whether one could use translations in prayer citation needed The Quran has been translated into most African Asian and European languages The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian who translated surat al Fatiha into Persian during the seventh century Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 in Alwar Sindh India now Pakistan by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian The Samanid king Mansur I 961 976 ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al Tabari originally in Arabic into Persian Later in the 11th century one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian In the 12th century Najm al Din Abu Hafs al Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times In 1936 translations in 102 languages were known In 2010 the Hurriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran Robert of Ketton s 1143 translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete was the first into a Western language Latin Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649 from the French translation of L Alcoran de Mahomet 1647 by Andre du Ryer In 1734 George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937 and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955 All these translators were non Muslims There have been numerous translations by Muslims Popular modern English translations by Muslims include The Oxford World Classic s translation by Muhammad Abdel Haleem The Clear Quran by Mustafa Khattab Sahih International s translation among various others As with translations of the Bible the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents for example two widely read translators Abdullah Yusuf Ali and Marmaduke Pickthall use the plural and singular ye and thou instead of the more common you The oldest Gurmukhi translation of the Quran Sharif has been found in village of Moga district of Indian Punjab which was printed in 1911 1091 Quranic text in bold script with Persian translation and commentary in a lighter script Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language L Alcoran de Mahomet Andre du Ryer 1647 Title page of the first German translation 1772 of the Quran Verses 33 and 34 of surat Ya Sin in this Chinese translation of the QuranRecitationMen reading the Quran at the Umayyad Mosque Damascus SyriaRules of recitation The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited how each individual syllable is to be pronounced the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause to elisions where the pronunciation should be long or short where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate etc It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels the articulation of the Quranic phonemes the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation and the musical and melodious features of recitation In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation reciters follow a program of training with a qualified teacher The two most popular texts used as references for tajwid rules are Matn al Jazariyyah by Ibn al Jazari and Tuhfat al Atfal by Sulayman al Jamzuri The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters like El Minshawy Al Hussary Abdul Basit Mustafa Ismail were highly influential in the development of current styles of recitation 83 Southeast Asia is well known for world class recitation evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah of Jakarta Today crowds fill auditoriums for public Quran recitation competitions There are two types of recitation Murattal is at a slower pace used for study and practice Mujawwad refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation as in public performances by trained experts It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the mujawwad reciter seeks to involve the listeners Variant readings Page of the Quran with vocalization marks The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant According to Melchert 2008 the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes including internal vowels long vowels gemination shaddah assimilation and alternation It is generally stated that there are small differences between readings However these small changes may also include differences that may lead to serious differences in Islam ranging from the definition of God to practices such as the formal conditions of ablution The first Quranic manuscripts lacked marks enabling multiple possible recitations to be conveyed by the same written text The 10th century Muslim scholar from Baghdad Ibn Mujahid is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th century readers from the cities of Mecca Medina Kufa Basra and Damascus Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers rather than six or ten but this may be related to a prophetic tradition Muhammad s saying reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven ahruf Today the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ d 796 and Warsh d 812 which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid s reciters Aasim ibn Abi al Najud Kufa d 745 and Nafiʽ al Madani Medina d 785 respectively The influential standard Quran of Cairo uses an elaborate system of modified vowel signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim s recitation the 8th century recitation of Kufa This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran Occasionally an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir ad Dimashqi Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of himsi region According to Ibn Taymiyyah vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds tashkeel were introduced into the text of the Qur an during the lifetimes of the last Sahabah Writing and printingWriting Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists The earliest manuscripts were written in Ḥijazi typescript The Hijazi style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage Probably in the ninth century scripts began to feature thicker strokes which are traditionally known as Kufic scripts Toward the end of the ninth century new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles Beginning in the 11th century the styles of writing employed were primarily the naskh muhaqqaq rayḥani and on rarer occasions the thuluth script Naskh was in very widespread use In North Africa and Iberia the Maghribi style was popular More distinct is the Bihari script which was used solely in the north of India Nastaʻliq style was also rarely used in Persian world In the beginning the Quran was not written with dots or tashkeel These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the Sahabah Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or juzʼ In terms of productivity the Ottoman copyists provide the best example This was in response to widespread demand unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons Whilst the majority of Islamic scribes were men some women also worked as scholars and copyists one such woman who made a copy of this text was the Moroccan jurist Amina bint al Hajj ʿAbd al Latif Folio from the Blue Quran at the Brooklyn Museum Kufic script eighth or ninth century Maghribi script 13th 14th centuries Muhaqqaq script 14th 15th centuriesPrinting Quran divided into six books published by Dar Ibn Kathir Damascus Beirut Wood block printing of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century Arabic movable type printing was ordered by Pope Julius II r 1503 1512 for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537 1538 for the Ottoman market by Paganino Paganini and Alessandro Paganini But this Quran was not used as it contained a large number of errors Two more editions include the Hinckelmann edition published by the pastor Abraham Hinckelmann in Hamburg in 1694 and the edition by the Italian priest Ludovico Maracci in Padua in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from Muslim legal scholars printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1726 initially even on penalty of death The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non religious texts only upon the request of Ibrahim Muteferrika who printed his first book in 1729 Except for books in Hebrew and European languages which were unrestricted very few books and no religious texts were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century In 1786 Catherine the Great of Russia sponsored a printing press for Tatar and Turkish orthography in Saint Petersburg with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types A Quran was printed with this press in 1787 reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg and in 1803 in Kazan The first edition printed in Iran appeared in Tehran 1828 a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842 and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in Constantinople between 1875 and 1877 as a two volume set during the First Constitutional Era Gustav Flugel published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in Leipzig which remained authoritative in Europe for close to a century until Cairo s Al Azhar University published an edition of the Quran in 1924 This edition was the result of a long preparation as it standardized Quranic orthography and it remains the basis of later editions CriticismRegarding the claim of divine origin critics refer to pre existing sources not only taken from the Bible supposed to be older revelations of God but also from heretic Apocryphic and talmudic sources such as the Syriac Infancy Gospel and Gospel of James The Quran acknowledges that accusations of borrowing popular ancient fables were being made against Muhammad Relationship with other literatureSome non Muslim groups such as the Bahaʼi Faith and Druze view the Quran as holy In the Bahaʼi Faith the Quran is accepted as authentic revelation from God along with the revelations of the other world religions Islam being a stage within the divine process of progressive revelation Baha u llah the Prophet Founder of the Bahaʼi Faith testified to the validity of the Quran writing say Perused ye not the Qur an Read it that haply ye may find the Truth for this Book is verily the Straight Path This is the Way of God unto all who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth Unitarian Universalists may also seek inspiration from the Quran It has been suggested that the Quran has some narrative similarities to the Diatessaron Protoevangelium of James Infancy Gospel of Thomas Gospel of Pseudo Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron as a gospel harmony may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text The Bible Jonah and the giant fish in the Jami al tawarikh Metropolitan Museum A common folktale finds its place in the Surah As Saaffat 37 139 as well as in other sacred texts and can be traced in Oannes Indian yogi Matsyendranatha and the Greek hero Jason The Quran attributes its relationship with former books the Torah and the Gospels to their unique origin saying all of them have been revealed by the one God According to Christoph Luxenberg in The Syro Aramaic Reading of the Koran the Quran s language was similar to the Syriac language The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books Tanakh Bible and devotional literature Apocrypha Midrash although it differs in many details Adam Enoch Noah Eber Shelah Abraham Lot Ishmael Isaac Jacob Joseph Job Jethro David Solomon Elijah Elisha Jonah Aaron Moses Zechariah John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God see Prophets of Islam In fact Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad by name Muhammad is often alluded to as The Prophet or The Apostle while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than in the New Testament Arab writing After the Quran and the general rise of Islam the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form The Arabic grammarian Sibawayh wrote one of the earliest books on Arabic grammar referred to as Al Kitab which relied heavily on the language in the Quran Wadad Kadi Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago and Mustansir Mir Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University state that the Quran exerted a particular influence on Arabic literature s diction themes metaphors motifs and symbols and added new expressions and new meanings to old pre Islamic words that would become ubiquitous See alsoIslam portalBook portalMiddle Ages portalList of chapters in the Quran List of translations of the Quran Quran translations Historical reliability of the Quran Quran and miracles Quran code Criticism of the Quran Violence in the Quran Women in the Quran Digital Quran The True Furqan Qira at Hadith Hadith al Thaqalayn Islamic schools and branches Schools of Islamic theology Attempted imitations of the QuranReferencesNotes The English pronunciation varies k e ˈ r ɑː n ˈ r ae n k ɔː k oʊ especially with the spelling quran k ʊ ˈ r ɑː n ˈ r ae n especially in British English k ɒ ˈ r ɑː n The Arabic pronunciation can be transcribed phonemically as al qurˈʔaːn The actual pronunciation in Literary Arabic varies regionally The first vowel varies from o to ʊ while the second vowel varies from ae to a to ɑ For example the pronunciation in Egypt is qorˈʔɑːn and in Central East Arabia qʊrˈʔaeːn k ʊ ˈ r ɑː n kuurr AHN vocalized Arabic ٱل ق ر آن Quranic Arabic ٱل ق ر ء ان al Qurʾan alqurˈʔaːn lit the recitation or the lecture English spelling The form Alcoran and its variants was usual before the 19th century when it became obsolete The form Koran was most predominant from the second half of the 18th century till the 1980s when it has been superseded by either Qur an or Quran Other transliterations include al Coran Coran Kuran and al Qur an The adjectives vary as well and include Koranic Quranic and Qur anic sometimes in lowercase According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam the verses pertaining to the usage of the word hikma should probably be interpreted in the light of IV 105 where it is said that Muhammad is to judge tahkum mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him Hadith are primarily from Muhammad but some are from those closest to him Muslim scholars have worked carefully to authenticate them see Hadith studies Evaluating authenticity God s Apostle replied Sometimes it is revealed like the ringing of a bell this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says ʻAisha added Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead as the Inspiration was over Few have failed to be convinced that the Quran is the words of Muhammad perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation There is some disagreement among early Muslim sources disagree over who was the first to collect the narrations At least one source credits Salim the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah with collecting the Qur an into a mushaf It is reported from Ibn Buraidah who said The first of those to collect the Qur an into a mushaf codex was Salim the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah For both the claim that variant readings are still transmitted and the claim that no such critical edition has been produced see Gilliot C Creation of a fixed text Scholars disagree on the exact number but this is a disagreement over the placing of the divisions between the verese not on the text itself The final process of collection and codification of the Quran text was guided by one over arching principle God s words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention For this reason no serious attempt apparently was made to edit the numerous revelations organize them into thematic units or present them in chronological order This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam who find the Quran disorganized repetitive and very difficult to read Samuel Pepys One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Quran as a Book written in Heaven too good for the Earth as a well written book or indeed as a book at all and not a bewildered rhapsody written so far as writing goes as badly as almost any book ever was professor emeritus of Islamic thought at the University of Paris Algerian Mohammed Arkoun the major Ottoman printing houses published a combined total of only 142 books in more than a century of printing between 1727 and 1838 When taken in conjunction with the fact that only a minuscule number of copies of each book were printed this statistic demonstrates that the introduction of the printing press did not transform Ottoman cultural life until the emergence of vibrant print media in the middle of the nineteenth century at imperial expense a Tatar and Turkish Typography was established in St Petersburg a domestic scholar Mullah Osman Ismail was responsible for the manufacture of the types One of the first products of this printing house was the Qur an Through the doctor and writer Johann Georg v Zimmermann d 1795 who was befriended by Catherine II a copy of the publication arrived in the Gottingen University library Its director the philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne d 1812 presented the work immediately in the Gottingische Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen 28 July 1788 therein he pointed especially to the beauty of the Arabic types To the Arabic text marginal glosses have been added that consist predominantly of reading variants The imprint was reproduced unchanged in 1790 and 1793 in St Petersburg cf Schnurrer Bibliotheca arabica no 384 later after the transfer of the printing house to Kazan editions appeared in different formats and with varying presentationQira at All except for ʻAsem Al Kesa i Yaʻqub and Khalaf in one of his narrations read maliki yawmi d din i as 4 King of the Day of Judgement Arabic and Persian writers such as 10th century geographer al Muqaddasi 11th century scholar Nasir Khusraw 12th century geographer al Idrisi and 15th century Islamic scholar Mujir al Din as well as 19th century American and British Orientalists Edward Robinson Guy Le Strange and Edward Henry Palmer explained that the term Masjid al Aqsa refers to the entire esplanade plaza also known as the Temple Mount or Haram al Sharif Noble Sanctuary i e the entire area including the Dome of the Rock the fountains the gates and the four minarets because none of these buildings existed at the time the Quran was written Human qualities which are attributed to Allah in the Quran such as coming going sitting satisfaction anger and sadness Allah has equipped them with words to bring them closer to our minds in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind and thus help the listener to clearly understand the idea he wants to express My mother the high priestess conceived in secret she bore me She set me in a basket of rushes with bitumen she sealed my lid She cast me into the river which rose over me Beyza Bilgin states that the expression let them put their outer coverings over themselves in the 59th verse of Al Ahzab was revealed because they harassed women under the conditions of that day considering them to be concubines and commented as follows In other words veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God s command Women have been called God s command for a thousand years Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters in law She said the following about covering herself in prayer They tell me Do you cover yourself while praying Of course I cover up when I m in congregation I am obliged not to disturb the peace But I also pray with my head uncovered in my own home Because the Quran s requirement for prayer is not covering up but ablution and turning towards the qibla This is a thousand year old issue It s so ingrained in us But this should definitely not be underestimated Because people do it thinking it is God s command But on the other hand we should not declare a person who does not cover up as a bad woman The Caliphate in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7 000 black eunuchs and 4 000 white eunuchs in his palace The Arab slave trade typically dealt in the sale of castrated male slaves Black boys at the age of eight to twelve had their penises and scrota completely amputated Reportedly about two out of three boys died but those who survived drew high prices In Shiite jurisprudence it is unlawful for a master of a female slave to grant a third party the use of her for sexual relations The Shiite scholar Shaykh al Tusi stated ولا يجوز إعارتها للاستمتاع بها لأن البضع لا يستباح بالإعارة It is not permissible to loan the slave girl for enjoyment purpose because sexual intercourse cannot be legitimate through loaning and the Shiite scholars al Muhaqiq al Kurki Allamah Al Hilli and Ali Asghar Merwarid made the following ruling ولا تجوز استعارة الجواري للاستمتاع It is not permissible to loan the slave girl for the purpose of sexual intercourse Beyza Bilgin states that the expression let them put their outer coverings over themselves in the 59th verse of Al Ahzab was revealed because they harassed women under the conditions of that day considering them to be concubines and commented as follows In other words veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God s command Women have been called God s command for a thousand years Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters in law Mehmet Ozdemir prof dr regarding sirah draws attention to the almost non existent number of miracles dalaʾil al nubuwwa in the first records and the hundreds of additions made in later periods In Luxenberg s Syro Aramaic reading the verse instead commands women to snap their belts around their waists The belt was a sign of chastity in the Christian world According to him the meanings of the words in the relevant part of the verse are as follows خ مار Khimar cummerbund جيب jyb sinus sac و ل ي ض ر ب ن let them hit Citations dictionary reference com koran dictionary reference com quran Cambridge dictionary koran Cambridge dictionary quran Alcoran Oxford English Dictionary Vol 1 1st ed Oxford University Press 1888 p 210 Google Books Ngram Viewer Google Books Retrieved 16 February 2021 Koran Oxford English Dictionary Vol 5 1st ed Oxford University Press 1901 p 753 Koran Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Subscription or participating institution membership required Quran Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Subscription or participating institution membership required Koran Merriam Webster com Dictionary Merriam Webster Guillaume Alfred 1954 Islam Edinburgh Penguin books p 74 It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose there is nothing to compare with it Toropov Brandon Buckles Luke 2004 Complete Idiot s Guide to World Religions Alpha p 126 ISBN 978 1 59257 222 9 Muslims believe that Muhammad s many divine encounters during his years in Mecca and Medina inspired the remainder of the Qur an which nearly fourteen centuries later remains the Arabic language s preeminent masterpiece Esposito John 2010 Islam The Straight Path 4th ed Oxford University Press p 21 ISBN 978 0 19 539600 3 Throughout history many Arab Christians as well have regarded it as the perfection of the Arabic language and literature Wheeler Brannon M 2002 Prophets in the Quran An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis A amp C Black p 2 ISBN 978 0 8264 4957 3 The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon Hebrew Union College Jewish Institute of Religion Archived from the original on 18 October 2017 Retrieved 31 August 2013 Nasr 2007 Quran 75 17 Quran 7 204 See kur an al Encyclopedia of Islam Online and 9 111 Quran 20 2 cf Quran 25 32 cf Jaffer Abbas Jaffer Masuma 2009 Quranic Sciences ICAS press pp 11 15 ISBN 978 1 904063 30 8 Surah Al Qadr 97 Sandikci Ozlem Rice Gillian 2011 Handbook of Islamic Marketing Edward Elgar p 38 ISBN 978 1 84980 013 6 Fisher Mary Pat 1997 Living Religions An Encyclopaedia of the World s Faiths Rev ed London I B Tauris Publishers p 338 Quran 17 106 Tabatabae 1988 p 98 Richard Bell Revised and Enlarged by W Montgomery Watt 1970 Bell s introduction to the Qur an Univ Press pp 31 51 ISBN 978 0 85224 171 4 P M Holt Ann K S Lambton and Bernard Lewis 1970 The Cambridge history of Islam Reprint ed Cambridge Univ Press p 32 ISBN 978 0 521 29135 4 Denffer Ahmad von 1985 Ulum al Qur an an introduction to the sciences of the Qur an Repr ed Islamic Foundation p 37 ISBN 978 0 86037 132 8 Translation of Sahih Bukhari Book 1 Center for Muslim Jewish Engagement University of Southern California Archived from the original on 10 January 2012 Quran 53 5 Quran 53 6 9 Buhl Fr 2012 1913 1936 Muhammad In Houtsma M Th Arnold T W Basset R Hartmann R eds Encyclopedia of Islam 1 ed doi 10 1163 2214 871X ei1 SIM 4746 ISBN 978 90 04 08265 6 Quran 7 157 Gunther Sebastian 2002 Muhammad the Illiterate Prophet An Islamic Creed in the Quran and Quranic Exegesis Journal of Quranic Studies 4 1 1 26 doi 10 3366 jqs 2002 4 1 1 ISSN 1465 3591 The Origins of the Variant Readings of the Qur an Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research Retrieved 15 August 2024 Philips Abu Ameenah Bilal 2006 Tafseer Soorah Al Hujurat New Revised Edition 2 ed International Islamic Publishing House pp 50 54 ISBN 9960 9677 0 0 Qira t and the 7 Ahruf All You Need To Know Arabian Tongue 15 February 2023 Retrieved 15 August 2024 Academy Ulum Al Azhar 13 August 2024 What Is Ahruf And Qirat A Full Guide Ulum Al Azhar Retrieved 15 August 2024 Background of 7 Ahruf Dialects of the Quran Rizqan Kareem Most Excellent Sustenance Retrieved 15 August 2024 معهد الفتح الإسلامي يرحب بكم www alfatihonline com Retrieved 15 August 2024 Campo Juan E 2009 Encyclopedia of Islam Facts On File pp 570 574 ISBN 978 0 8160 5454 1 Donner Fred 2006 The historical context In McAuliffe Jane Dammen ed The Cambridge Companion to the Qur an Cambridge University Press pp 31 33 Roslan Abdul Rahim December 2017 Demythologizing the Qur an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al Qur an Global Journal Al Thaqafah 7 2 62 doi 10 7187 GJAT122017 2 ISSN 2232 0474 Wat is de Koran Koran nl in Dutch 18 February 2016 Cook 2000 p 121 Tabatabae 1988 p 99 Since the word of God seemed threatened with alteration the third caliph ordered that five of the qurra from amongst the companions one of them being Zayd ibn Thabit who had compiled the first volume produce other copies from the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of the first caliph and which had been kept with Ḥafṣah the wife of the Prophet and daughter of the second caliph The other copies already in the hands of Muslims in other areas were collected and sent to Medina where on orders of the Caliph they were burnt or according to some historians were destroyed by boiling Thus several copies were made one being kept in Medina one in Mecca and one each sent to Sham a territory now divided into Syria Lebanon Palestine and Jordan Kufa and Basra It is said that beside these five one copy was also sent to Yemen and one to Bahrein These copies were called the Imam copies and served as original for all future copies The only difference of order between these copies and the first volume was that the chapters Spirits of War and Immunity were written in one place between The Heights and Jonah al Bukhari Muhammad Sahih Bukhari volume 6 book 61 narrations number 509 and 510 sahih bukhari com Retrieved 16 February 2018 Cook 2000 p 117 Rippin 2006 Poetry and Language by Navid Kermani pp 107 20 For the history of compilation see Introduction by Tamara Sonn pp 5 6 For eschatology see Discovering final destination by Christopher Buck p 30 For literary structure see Language by Mustansir Mir p 93 For writing and printing see Written Transmission by Francois Deroche pp 172 87 For recitation see Recitation by Anna M Gade pp 481 93 Yusuff Mohamad K Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur an Cook 2000 pp 117 124 Peters 1991 pp 3 5 John Gilchrist Jam Al Qur an The Codification of the Qur an Text A Comprehensive Study of the Original Collection of the Qur an Text and the Early Surviving Qur an Manuscripts MERCSA Mondeor 2110 Republic of South Africa 1989 Chapter 1 The Initial Collection of the Qur an Text citing as Suyuti Al Itqan fii Ulum al Qur an p 135 Noorullah Website Is the Qur an Corrupted Shi ites View 27 October 2009 Archived from the original on 27 October 2009 Shirazi Muhammad 2001 The Qur an When was it compiled London UK Fountain Books pp 5 7 Shirazi Muhammad 2008 The Shi a and their Beliefs London UK Fountain Books p 29 HADDADIAN ABDORREZA MOADDAB SEYYED REZA A STUDY ON TRADITIONS OF DISTORTION IN AYYASHI EXEGESIS Hadith Studies 4 8 141 166 Ahmad ibn Muhammad al Sayyari 2009 Kohlberg Etan Amir Moezzi Mohammad Ali eds Revelation and Falsification The Kitab al qira at of Ahmad b Muhammad al Sayyari Critical Edition with an Introduction and Notes by Etan Kohlberg and Mohammad Ali Amir Moezzi Texts and Studies on the Qurʼan 4 BRILL vii ISSN 1567 2808 Kohlberg amp Amir Moezzi 2009 p 24 26 27 Kohlberg amp Amir Moezzi 2009 pp 20 24 Leaman Oliver ed 2006 The Qur an an Encyclopedia New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 32639 1 For God in the Quran Allah see Allah by Zeki Saritoprak pp 33 40 For eschatology see Eschatology by Zeki Saritoprak pp 194 99 For searching the Arabic text on the internet and writing see Cyberspace and the Qur an by Andrew Rippin pp 159 63 For calligraphy see by Calligraphy and the Qur an by Oliver Leaman pp 130 35 For translation see Translation and the Qur an by Afnan Fatani pp 657 69 For recitation see Art and the Qur an by Tamara Sonn pp 71 81 and Reading by Stefan Wild pp 532 35 Religions of the world Lewis M Hopfe 1979 Some Muslims have suggested and practiced textual criticism of the Quran in a manner similar to that practiced by Christians and Jews on their bibles No one has yet suggested the higher criticism of the Quran Egypt s culture wars politics and practice Page 278 Samia Mehrez 2008 Middle East report Issues 218 222 Issues 224 225 Middle East Research amp Information Project JSTOR Organization 2001 Shahine filed to divorce Abu Zayd from his wife on the grounds that Abu Zayd s textual criticism of the Quran made him an apostate and hence unfit to marry a Muslim Abu Zayd and his wife eventually relocated to the Netherlands Donner Quran in Recent Scholarship 2008 p 30 Donner Fred M 2014 Review Textual Criticism and Qurʾan Manuscripts by Keith E Small Journal of Near Eastern Studies 73 1 166 169 doi 10 1086 674909 Melchert Christopher 2000 Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur anic Readings Studia Islamica 91 5 22 doi 10 2307 1596266 JSTOR 1596266 Ibn Warraq Which Koran Variants Manuscript Linguistics p 45 Prometheus Books 2011 ISBN 1 59102 430 7 Gilliot C 2006 Creation of a fixed text In McAuliffe Jane Dammen ed The Cambridge Companion to the Qur an Cambridge University Press p 52 The Qur an Text Interpretation and Translation Third Biannual SOAS Conference 16 17 October 2003 Journal of Qur anic Studies 6 1 143 145 April 2004 doi 10 3366 jqs 2004 6 1 143 Bergmann Uwe Sadeghi Behnam September 2010 The Codex of a Companion of the Prophet and the Quran of the Prophet Arabica 57 4 343 436 doi 10 1163 157005810X504518 Sadeghi Behnam Goudarzi Mohsen March 2012 Ṣan a 1 and the Origins of the Qur an Der Islam 87 1 2 1 129 doi 10 1515 islam 2011 0025 S2CID 164120434 Lester Toby January 1999 What Is the Koran Atlantic Retrieved 24 September 2019 An Inscription Mentioning the Rebuilding of Al Masjid Al Haram 78 AH 697 698 CE Jeffrey 1952 pp 99 120 Robinson 1996 p 56 Le Strange Guy 1890 Palestine Under the Moslems A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A D 650 to 1500 Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers Houghton Mifflin p 96 Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 Retrieved 31 July 2022 Great confusion is introduced into the Arab descriptions of the Noble Sanctuary by the indiscriminate use of the terms Al Masjid or Al Masjid al Aksa Jami or Jami al Aksa and nothing but an intimate acquaintance with the locality described will prevent a translator ever and again misunderstanding the text he has before him since the native authorities use the technical terms in an extraordinarily inexact manner often confounding the whole and its part under the single denomination of Masjid Further the usage of various writers differs considerably on these points Mukaddasi invariably speaks of the whole Haram Area as Al Masjid or as Al Masjid al Aksi the Aksa Mosque or the mosque while the Main building of the mosque at the south end of the Haram Area which we generally term the Aksa he refers to as Al Mughatta the Covered part Thus he writes the mosque is entered by thirteen gates meaning the gates of the Haram Area So also on the right of the court means along the west wall of the Haram Area on the left side means the east wall and at the back denotes the northern boundary wall of the Haram Area Nasir i Khusrau who wrote in Persian uses for the Main building of the Aksa Mosque the Persian word Pushish that is Covered part which exactly translates the Arabic Al Mughatta On some occasions however the Aksa Mosque as we call it is spoken of by Nasir as the Maksurah a term used especially to denote the railed off oratory of the Sultan facing the Mihrab and hence in an extended sense applied to the building which includes the same The great Court of the Haram Area Nasir always speaks of as the Masjid or the Masjid al Aksa or again as the Friday Mosque Masjid i Jum ah Idrisi Muhammad Jaubert Pierre Amedee 1836 Geographie d Edrisi in French a l Imprimerie royale pp 343 344 Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 Retrieved 31 July 2022 Sous la domination musulmane il fut agrandi et c est aujourd hui la grande mosquee connue par les Musulmans sous le nom de Mesdjid el Acsa مسجد الأقصى Il n en existe pas au monde qui l egale en grandeur si l on en excepte toutefois la grande mosquee de Cordoue en Andalousie car d apres ce qu on rapporte le toit de cette mosquee est plus grand que celui de la Mesdjid el Acsa Au surplus l aire de cette derniere forme un parallelogramme dont la hauteur est de deux cents brasses ba a et le base de cents quatre vingts La moitie de cet espace celle qui est voisin du Mihrab est couverte d un toit ou plutot d un dome en pierres soutenu par plusieurs rangs de colonnes l autre est a ciel ouvert Au centre de l edifice est un grand dome connu sous le nom de Dome de la roche il fut orne d arabesques en or et d autres beaux ouvrages par les soins de divers califes musulmans Le dome est perce de quatre portes en face de celle qui est a l occident on voit l autel sur lequel les enfants d Israel offraient leurs sacrifices aupres de la porte orientale est l eglise nommee le saint des saints d une construction elegante au midi est une chapelle qui etait a l usage des Musulmans mais les chretiens s en sont empares de vive force et elle est restee en leur pouvoir jusqu a l epoque de la composition du present ouvrage Ils ont converti cette chapelle en un couvent ou resident des religieux de l ordre des templiers c est a dire des serviteurs de la maison de Dieu Also at Williams G Willis R 1849 Account of Jerusalem during the Frank Occupation extracted from the Universal Geography of Edrisi Climate III sect 5 Translated by P Amedee Jaubert Tome 1 pp 341 345 The Holy City Historical Topographical and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem J W Parker Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 Retrieved 31 July 2022 Williams George 1849 The Holy City Historical Topographical and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem Parker pp 143 160 Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 Retrieved 22 June 2022 The following detailed account of the Haram es Sherif with some interesting notices of the City is extracted from an Arabic work entitled The Sublime Companion to the History of Jerusalem and Hebron by Kadi Mejir ed din Ebil yemen Abd er Rahman El Alemi who died A H 927 A d 1521 I have at the commencement called attention to the fact that the place now called by the name Aksa i e the most distant is the Mosk Jamia properly so called at the southern extremity of the area where is the Minbar and the great Mihrab But in fact Aksa is the name of the whole area enclosed within the walls the dimensions of which I have just given for the Mosk proper Jamia the Dome of the Rock the Cloisters and other buildings are all of late construction and Mesjid el Aksa is the correct name of the whole area and also von Hammer Purgstall J F 1811 Chapitre vingtieme Description de la mosquee Mesdjid ol aksa telle qu elle est de nos jours du temps de l auteur au dixieme siecle de l Hegire au seizieme apres J C Fundgruben des Orients in French Vol 2 Gedruckt bey A Schmid p 93 Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 Retrieved 22 June 2022 Nous avons des le commencement appele l attention sur que l endroit auquel les hommes donnent aujourd hui le nom d Aksa c est a dire la plus eloignee est la mosquee proprement dite batie a l extremite meridionale de l enceinte ou se trouve la chaire et le grand autel Mais en effet Aksa est le nom de l enceinte entiere en tant qu elle est enfermee de murs dont nous venons de donner la longueur et la largeur car la mosquee proprement dite le dome de la roche Sakhra les portiques et les autres batimens sont tous des constructions recentes et Mesdjidol aksa est le veritable nom de toute l enceinte Le Mesdjid des arabes repond a l ieron et le Djami au naos des grecs Mustafa Abu Sway Fall 2000 The Holy Land Jerusalem and Al Aqsa Mosque in the Islamic Sources Journal of the Central Conference of American Rabbis CCAR 60 68 Archived from the original on 29 May 2022 Retrieved 29 May 2022 Quoting Mujir al Din Verily Al Aqsa is a name for the whole mosque which is surrounded by the wall the length and width of which are mentioned here for the building that exists in the southern part of the Mosque and the other ones such as the Dome of the Rock and the corridors and other buildings are novel Robinson E Smith E 1841 Biblical Researches in Palestine John Murray The Jami a el Aksa is the mosk alone the Mesjid el Aksa is the mosk with all the sacred enclosure and precincts including the Sukhrah Thus the words Mesjid and Jami a differ in usage somewhat like the Greek ieron and naos Palmer E H 1871 History of the Haram Es Sherif Compiled from the Arabic Historians Palestine Exploration Quarterly 3 3 122 132 doi 10 1179 peq 1871 012 ISSN 0031 0328 EXCURSUS ON THE NAME MASJID EL AKSA In order to understand the native accounts of the sacred area at Jerusalem it is essentially necessary to keep in mind the proper application of the various names by which it is spoken of When the Masjid el Aksa is mentioned that name is usually supposed to refer to the well known mosque on the south side of the Haram but such is not really the case The latter building is called El Jamʻi el Aksa or simply El Aksa and the substructures are called El Aksa el Kadimeh the ancient Aksa while the title El Masjid el Aksa is applied to the whole sanctuary The word Jami is exactly equivalent in sense to the Greek synagwgh and is applied to the church or building in which the worshippers congregate Masjid on the other hand is a much more general term it is derived from the verb sejada to adore and is applied to any spot the sacred character of which would especially incite the visitor to an act of devotion Our word mosque is a corruption of masjid but it is usually misapplied as the building is never so designated although the whole area on which it stands may be so spoken of The Cubbet es Sakhrah El Aksa Jam i el Magharibeh amp c are each called a Jami but the entire Haram is a masjid This will explain how it is that Omar after visiting the churches of the Anastasis Sion amp c was taken to the Masjid of Jerusalem and will account for the statement of Ibn el Asa kir and others that the Masjid el Aksa measured over 600 cubits in length that is the length of the whole Haram area The name Masjid el Aksa is borrowed from the passage in the Coran xvii 1 when allusion is made to the pretended ascent of Mohammed into heaven from the temple of Jerusalem Praise be unto Him who transported His servant by night from El Masjid el Haram i e the Sacred place of Adoration at Mecca to El Masjid el Aksa i e the Remote place of Adoration at Jerusalem the precincts of which we have blessed amp c The title El Aksa the Remote according to the Mohammedan doctors is applied to the temple of Jerusalem either because of its distance from Mecca or because it is in the centre of the earth Le Strange Guy 1890 Palestine Under the Moslems A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A D 650 to 1500 Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers Houghton Mifflin Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 Retrieved 29 May 2022 THE AKSA MOSQUE The great mosque of Jerusalem Al Masjid al Aksa the Further Mosque derives its name from the traditional Night Journey of Muhammad to which allusion is made in the words of the Kuran xvii I the term Mosque being here taken to denote the whole area of the Noble Sanctuary and not the Main building of the Aksa only which in the Prophet s days did not exist Strange Guy le 1887 Description of the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem in 1470 A D by Kamal or Shams ad Din as Suyuti Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 19 2 Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 247 305 doi 10 1017 S0035869X00019420 ISSN 0035 869X JSTOR 25208864 S2CID 163050043 the term Masjid whence through the Spanish Mezquita our word Mosque denotes the whole of the sacred edifice comprising the main building and the court with its lateral arcades and minor chapels The earliest specimen of the Arab mosque consisted of an open courtyard within which round its four walls run colonades or cloisters to give shelter to the worshippers On the side of the court towards the Kiblah in the direction of Mekka and facing which the worshipper must stand the colonade instead of being single is for the convenience of the increased numbers of the congregation widened out to form the Jami or place of assembly coming now to the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem we must remember that the term Masjid belongs not only to the Aksa mosque more properly the Jami or place of assembly for prayer but to the whole enclosure with the Dome of the Rock in the middle and all the other minor domes and chapels Coughlan Sean Oldest Koran fragments found in Birmingham University BBC Retrieved 22 July 2015 Dan Bilefsky 22 July 2015 A Find in Britain Quran Fragments Perhaps as Old as Islam New York Times Retrieved 28 July 2015 Elizabeth Goldman 1995 p 63 gives 8 June 632 the dominant Islamic tradition Many earlier mainly non Islamic traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the invasion of Palestine See Stephen J Shoemaker The Death of a Prophet The End of Muhammad s Life and the Beginnings of Islam page needed University of Pennsylvania Press 2011 New Light on the History of the Quranic Text The Huffington Post 24 July 2015 Retrieved 27 July 2015 Saeed Abdullah 2008 The Qurʼan an introduction London Routledge p 62 ISBN 978 0 415 42124 9 Crone Patricia 10 June 2008 What do we actually know about Mohammed Open Democracy Retrieved 3 October 2019 Vogel Frank E 2000 Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudi Studies of Saudi Arabia Brill pp 4 5 ISBN 9004110623 Surah Al Isra 7 Quran com Retrieved 10 July 2023 1 Kings 11 1 7 8 Bietenholz Peter G 1994 Historia and fabula myths and legends in historical thought from antiquity to the modern age Brill ISBN 978 9004100633 Fazeli Hamidreza Tali Tabasi Marziyeh Fazeli Alireza Fararooei Shokrolla A Critical Study of the Quran s Theory of Mythology A Case Study on Mohammad Arkoun s Perspectives Iraqi Open Access Journals p 2 Retrieved 5 March 2024 After examining the verses of the Quran to find where the word mythology has been used and seeking the accordance between the meaning and context with Quran s purpose of knowledge and guidance including rules and educational issues we found that the concept of myth is not acceptable in the Quran The result of this study show that Quran is not a myth rather the stories are factual and based on reality Watt 1960 2007 It is generally agreed both by Muslim commentators and modera sic occidental scholars that Dhu l Ḳarnayn is to be identified with Alexander the Great Cook 2013 Dhu al Qarnayn usually identified with Alexander the Great Hameen Anttila Jaakko 17 April 2018 Khwadaynamag The Middle Persian Book of Kings BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 27764 9 Many Mediaeval scholars argued against the identification though Cf e g the discussion in al Maqrizi Khabar 212 232 Maqrizi Aḥmad Ibn ʿAli al Hameen Anttila Jaakko 2018 Al Maqrizi s al Ḫabar ʻan al basar vol V section 4 Persia and its kings part I Bibliotheca Maqriziana Opera maiora Leiden Boston Brill pp 279 281 ISBN 978 90 04 35599 6 Zadeh Travis 28 February 2017 Mapping Frontiers Across Medieval Islam Geography Translation and the Abbasid Empire Bloomsbury Publishing pp 97 98 ISBN 978 1 78673 131 9 In the early history of Islam there was a lively debate over the true identity of Dhu l Qarnayn One prominent identification was with an ancient South Arabian Ḥimyari king generally referred to in the sources as al Ṣaʿb b Dhi Marathid Indeed the association of Dhu l Qarnayn with the South Arabian ruler can be traced in many early Arabic sources Quran 67 3 Saritoprak Zeki 2006 Allah In Leaman Oliver ed The Qur an an Encyclopedia New York Routledge pp 33 40 ISBN 978 0 415 32639 1 D B Macdonald Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed Brill Ilah Vol 3 p 1093 Yuskaev Timur R 18 October 2017 Speaking Qur an An American Scripture Univ of South Carolina Press ISBN 978 1 61117 795 4 Indeed Lord is a direct translation of the Arabic word Rabb bir soyleside yaptigi ilgili aciklama YouTube 15 August 2016 Archived from the original on 5 December 2020 Retrieved 15 August 2016 Tabatabai Allamah Al Mizan Discourses Tafsir Al Mizan lt Allamah Muhammad Hussein Tabatabai gt Archived from the original on 8 December 2008 Retrieved 16 February 2021 The Qur an Possesses Revelation and Exegesis Allamah Tabatabaee Islamic Ma aref Foundation Institute 1988 pp 37 45 Archived from the original on 16 February 2012 Quran 41 43 Levenson 2012 p 8 Peters 2003 p 9 Levenson 2012 p 200 Lings 2004 Quran 2 135 Glasse Cyril 1991 Abraham Kaaba The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam HarperSanFrancisco Suhail Academy pp 18 19 ISBN 0 0606 3126 0 Coogan Michael David Coogan Michael D 2001 The Oxford History of the Biblical World Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 513937 2 Many of these forms are not and should not be considered historically based Moses birth narrative for example is built on folkloric motifs found throughout the ancient world Rendsburg Gary A 2006 Moses as Equal to Pharaoh In Beckman Gary M Lewis Theodore J eds Text Artifact and Image Revealing Ancient Israelite Religion Brown Judaic Studies p 204 ISBN 978 1 930675 28 5 Finlay Timothy D 2005 The Birth Report Genre in the Hebrew Bible Forschungen zum Alten Testament Vol 12 Mohr Siebeck p 236 ISBN 978 3 16 148745 3 Moses Oxford Biblical Studies Online Ltd Hymns Ancient Modern May 1996 Third Way magazine p 18 better source needed Keeler Annabel 2005 Moses from a Muslim Perspective In Solomon Norman Harries Richard Winter Tim eds Abraham s children Jews Christians and Muslims in conversation T amp T Clark pp 55 66 ISBN 978 0 567 08171 1 Archived from the original on 29 April 2016 Hagen G 2009 From Haggadic Exegesis To Myth Popular Stories Of The Prophets In Islam In Sacred Tropes Tanakh New Testament and Qur an as Literature and Culture Leiden Niederlande Brill https doi org 10 1163 ej 9789004177529 i 536 65 Izutsu Toshihiko 6 June 2007 2002 Ethico religious concepts in the Qur an Repr ed McGill Queen s University Press p 184 ISBN 978 0 7735 2427 9 Dalley defends traditional opinion The name or epithet of Atrahasis is used for the skillful god of craftmanship Kothar wa hasis in Ugaritic mythology and is abbreviated to Chousor in the Greek account of Syrian origins related by Philo of Byblos A similar abbreviation is used in the name of the Islamic sage Al khidr Stephanie Dalley Myths from Mesopotamia Creation The Flood Gilgamesh and Others Oxford revised edition 2000 p 2 ISBN 0 19 283589 0 Myths from Mesopotamia Creation the Flood Gilgamesh and Others PDF Archived from the original PDF on 5 September 2014 Retrieved 25 August 2014 Cole Juan 2021 Dyed in Virtue The Qur an and Plato s Republic Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies 61 582 Kassis Riad Aziz 1999 The Book of Proverbs and Arabic Proverbial Works Brill p 51 ISBN 978 90 04 11305 3 Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica T Izutsu Ethico Religious Concepts in the Qur an London McGillQueen s University Press 2002 p 213 Esack Farid 2003 Martin Richard C ed Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world Online Ausg ed Macmillan Reference pp 568 562 ISBN 978 0 02 865603 8 Sonn Tamara 2010 Islam a brief history Second ed Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 4051 8093 1 Quran 9 103 Zum Beispiel Sayyid Ahmad Khan Vgl Ahmad Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857 1964 1967 S 49 Ek 15 Dini Gorevler Tanri dan Bir Armagan Teslimolanlar Archived from the original on 5 November 2021 Retrieved 30 May 2021 Vgl Birisik Kurʾaniyyun in Turkiye Diyanet Vakfi Islam Ansiklopedisi 2002 Bd 26 S 429 Yuksel al Shaiban Schulte Nafeh Quran A Reformist Translation 2007 S 507 10 How Can we Observe the Sala Prayers by Following the Quran Alone Edip Layth quranix org quranix org Retrieved 14 August 2023 Elizabeth M Bucar 2011 Creative Conformity The Feminist Politics of U S Catholic and Iranian Shi i Women Georgetown University Press p 118 ISBN 9781589017528 Hameed Shahul 9 October 2003 Is Hijab a Qur anic Commandment Archived from the original on 4 April 2023 Retrieved 1 June 2023 Nomani Asra Q Arafa Hala 21 December 2015 Opinion As Muslim women we actually ask you not to wear the hijab in the name of interfaith solidarity Washington Post Retrieved 22 December 2022 Ortunmek Allah in emri degil in Turkish haberturk com 28 May 2008 Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 7 February 2017 Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre Islamic Arab Society SADIK KIRAZLI download Archived from the original on 29 January 2022 Retrieved 12 July 2024 Al Jallad 2022 p 41 44 68 Dost 2023 Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre Islamic Arab Society SADIK KIRAZLI download Archived from the original on 29 January 2022 Retrieved 31 January 2022 Tahir Wasti The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Practice PDF ndl ethernet edu et Surah Al Baqarah 282 Quran com Retrieved 16 December 2024 Powers David S 1993 Islamic Inheritance System A Socio Historical Approach Arab Law Quarterly 8 1 13 29 doi 10 1163 157302593X00285 JSTOR 3381490 Peters Rudolph 2006 Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty First Century Cambridge University Press pp 53 55 ISBN 978 0521796705 www wbr alhakam wbr org wbr what is the meaning of those whom your right hand possesses milk al yamin Segal Ronald 9 February 2002 Islam s Black Slaves The Other Black Diaspora Macmillan ISBN 978 0374527976 Wilson Jean D Roehrborn Claus 1999 Long Term Consequences of Castration in Men Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology amp Metabolism 84 12 4324 4331 doi 10 1210 jcem 84 12 6206 PMID 10599682 Shaykh al Tusi stated in Al Mabsut Volume 3 page 57 al Muhaqiq al Kurki in Jame a al Maqasid Volume 6 page 62 Allamah al Hilli in Al Tadkira Volume 2 page 210 and Ali Asghar Merwarid in Al Yanabi al Fiqhya Volume 17 page 187 Khasan Moh 24 May 2021 From Textuality to Universality The Evolution of Ḥirabah Crimes in Islamic Jurisprudence Al Jami ah Journal of Islamic Studies 59 1 1 32 doi 10 14421 ajis 2021 591 1 32 ISSN 2338 557X Retrieved 16 November 2024 Vikor Knut S 2014 Shariʿah In Emad El Din Shahin ed The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics Oxford University Press Archived from the original on 4 June 2014 Mayer Ann Elizabeth 2009 Law Modern Legal Reform In John L Esposito ed The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Oxford Oxford University Press Archived from the original on 21 November 2008 Buck C 2006 Discovering final destination In Rippin A et al eds The Blackwell Companion to the Qur an 2a reimpr ed Blackwell p 30 ISBN 978 1 4051 1752 4 Genesis 2 10 14 Haleem Muhammad Abdel 2005 Understanding the Qur an themes and style I B Tauris p 82 ISBN 978 1 86064 650 8 Cook 2000 p 119 Dukes Kais RE Number of Unique Words in the Quran The Mail Archive Retrieved 29 October 2012 National Geographic issue mysteries of history September 2018 p 45 Burrowes Robert D 2010 Historical Dictionary of Yemen Rowman amp Littlefield p 319 ISBN 978 0810855281 see Jamal Malik 6 April 2020 Islam in South Asia Revised Enlarged and Updated Second Edition BRILL p 580 ISBN 978 90 04 42271 1 See Kur an al Encyclopaedia of Islam Online Allen 2000 p 53 مقطعات is the plural of a participle from قطع to cut break Massey Keith 2002 Mysterious Letters In McAuliffe Jane Dammen ed Encyclopedia of the Qurʾan Vol 3 Leiden Brill p 472 doi 10 1163 1875 3922 q3 EQCOM 00128 ISBN 90 04 12354 7 Suyuti al Durr al manthur vol 1 p 57 Brown Norman O 1991 Apocalypse And or Metamorphosis University of California Press p 81 ISBN 0 520 07298 7 Rashad Khalifa Quran Visual Presentation of the Miracle Islamic Productions International 1982 ISBN 0 934894 30 2 Marshall Alison What on earth is a disconnected letter Bahaʼu llah s commentary on the disconnected letters Retrieved 19 March 2007 Luxenberg Christoph 2009 The Syro Aramaic Reading of the Koran A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the Koran 1st Edition Stewart Devin J 2008 Notes on Medieval and Modern Emendations of the Qur an In Reynolds Gabriel Said ed The Quran in its Historical Context Routledge p 234 Sedgwick Mark 2004 Against the Modern World Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century New York Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 515297 2 P 66 Islahi Amin Ahsan 2004 Taddabur i Quran Faraan Foundation pp 82 85 Boullata Issa J 2002 Literary Structure of Quran in McAuliffe Jane Dammen ed Encyclopedia of the Qurʾan vol 3 Leiden Brill pp 192 204 ISBN 90 04 12354 7 Mir M 2006 Language In Rippin A et al eds The Blackwell Companion to the Qur an 2a reimpr ed Blackwell p 93 ISBN 978 1 4051 1752 4 Rosenthal Herman Waldstein A S Korner Moses B Eliezer Jewish Encyclopedia Retrieved 15 August 2022 Approaches to the Asian Classics Irene Blomm William Theodore De Bary Columbia University Press 1990 p 65 Peterson Daniel C 1990 Editor s Introduction By What Measure Shall We Mete FARMS Review of Books The Neal A Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship at BYU Archived from the original on 4 March 2008 Retrieved 30 September 2013 Sells Michael 1999 Approaching the Qur an White Cloud Press Brown Norman O Winter 1983 1984 The Apocalypse of Islam Social Text 3 8 Duke University Press 155 71 doi 10 2307 466329 JSTOR 466329 Quran 21 50 Wild Stefan ed 2006 Self referentiality in the Qur an Wiesbaden Harrassowitz ISBN 978 3 447 05383 9 Leaman Oliver ed 2006 The Qur an an encyclopedia Routledge ISBN 9780415326391 Peters F E 2003 The Words and Will of God Princeton University Press pp 12 13 ISBN 978 0 691 11461 3 For example see comments by Arthur John Arberry to produce something which might be accepted as echoing however faintly the sublime rhetoric of the Arabic Koran I have been at pains to study the intricate and richly varied rhythms which constitute the Koran s undeniable claim to rank amongst the greatest literary masterpieces of mankindArberry A J 1955 The Koran Interpreted New York Macmillan pp x Karen Armstrong It is as though Muhammad had created an entirely new literary form that some people were not ready for but which thrilled others Without this experience of the Koran it is extremely unlikely that Islam would have taken root Armstrong K 1994 A History of God p 78 Oliver Leaman the verses of the Qur an represent its uniqueness and beauty not to mention its novelty and originality That is why it has succeeded in convincing so many people of its truth it imitates nothing and no one nor can it be imitated Its style does not pall even after long periods of study and the text does not lose its freshness over time Leaman Oliver 2006 The Qur an an Encyclopedia p 404 and similar views by Joseph Schacht 1974 The legacy of Islam Henry Stubbe An account of the Rise and Progress of Mohammadanism 1911 Martin Zammit A Comparative Lexical Study of Qur anic Arabic 2002 and Alfred Guillaume Islam 1990 Vasalou Sophia 2002 The Miraculous Eloquence of the Qur an General Trajectories and Individual Approaches Journal of Qur anic Studies 4 2 23 53 doi 10 3366 jqs 2002 4 2 23 Well Did Muhammad Not Copy Some Verses of the Qur an from Imru l Qais Search Results Search Results moon split page 1 Sunnah com Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad صلى الله عليه و سلم sunnah com Wensinck A J Muʿd j iza Encyclopaedia of Islam Edited by P Bearman Th Bianquis C E Bosworth E van Donzel and W P Heinrichs Brill 2007 Denis Gril Miracles Encyclopedia of the Qur an Brill 2007 Ozdemir Mehmet 2007 Siyer Yaziciligi Uzerine Milel ve Nihal 4 3 129 162 Arberry Arthur 1956 The Koran Interpreted London p 191 ISBN 0 684 82507 4 It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose there is nothing to compare with it a href wiki Template Cite book title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link clarification needed Syukron Ahmad Khairiyah Nikmatul 31 August 2024 Chronology of the Qur an According to Theodor Noldeke and Sir William Muir Analysis of the History of the Qur an and Life of Mahomet Archived from the original on 30 August 2024 Retrieved 21 February 2024 Siddiqui M 2020 Poetry prophecy and the angelic voice Reflections on the Divine Word PDF Prophetic Witness and the Reimagining of the World Poetry Theology and Philosophy in Dialogue 5 61 74 doi 10 4324 9780367344092 6 Archived from the original PDF on 21 February 2024 FARRUGIA MARISA 31 August 2024 WAR AND PEACE IN PRE ISLAMIC ARABIC POETRY PDF Archived PDF from the original on 30 August 2024 Retrieved 21 February 2024 EL AWAISI Khalid 31 August 2024 THE QURANIC PROPHECY OF THE DEFEAT AND VICTORY OF THE BYZANTINES Mardin Artuklu University Archived from the original on 21 February 2024 Retrieved 21 February 2024 Vgl Martin 533 Vgl Neuwirth 177 und Grotzfeld 65 Larkin Margaret 1988 The Inimitability of the Qur an Two Perspectives Religion amp Literature 20 1 31 47 Quran 17 88 Vgl Neuwirth 172 175 Leaman Oliver ed 2006 The Qur an an encyclopedia Routledge ISBN 9780415326391 See Corbin 1993 p 12 Wild Stefan 1996 The Quʼran as Text Leiden Brill pp 137 138 141 147 ISBN 978 90 04 09300 3 Quran 2 97 17 105 Jenssen H 2001 Arabic Language In McAuliffe Jane Dammen ed Encyclopedia of the Qurʾan Vol 1 Leiden Brill pp 127 35 Quran 85 22 Guillaume Islam 1954 p 74 Pickthall M M 1981 The Glorious Qur an Chicago IL Iqra Book Center p vii Ibn Warraq Why I m Not a Muslim 1995 p 105 Patton Ibn Ḥanbal and the Miḥna 1897 p 54 Ruthven Malise 1984 Islam in the World Oxford University Press p 192 ISBN 978 0 19 530503 6 Retrieved 28 February 2019 Mir Sajjad Ali Zainab Rahman 2010 Islam and Indian Muslims Kalpaz Publications p 21 ISBN 978 81 7835 805 5 LESTER TOBY January 1999 What Is the Koran Atlantic Retrieved 8 April 2019 Guessoum Nidhal June 2008 ThE QUR AN SCIENCE AND THE RELATED CONTEMPORARY MUSLIM DISCOURSE Zygon 43 2 411 doi 10 1111 j 1467 9744 2008 00925 x ISSN 0591 2385 Retrieved 15 April 2019 SARDAR ZIAUDDIN 21 August 2008 Weird science New Statesman Retrieved 15 April 2019 Carroll Jill The Quran amp Hadith World Religions Retrieved 10 July 2019 Watton Victor 1993 A student s approach to world religions Islam Hodder amp Stoughton p 1 ISBN 978 0 340 58795 9 Lambert Gray 2013 The Leaders Are Coming WestBow Press p 287 ISBN 978 1 4497 6013 7 Roy H Williams Michael R Drew 2012 Pendulum How Past Generations Shape Our Present and Predict Our Future Vanguard Press p 143 ISBN 978 1 59315 706 7 permanent dead link Corbin 1993 p 30 Book 26 Hadith 1 Chapter Regarding the virtue of knowledge 31 August 2024 Jens Zimmermann Hermeneutics A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press 2015 pg 90 Translation of the Holy Quran A Call for Standardization PDF Postmodernism Approach in Islamic Jurisprudence Fiqh PDF 31 August 2024 Archived PDF from the original on 30 August 2024 Retrieved 2 May 2024 Seyyed Hossein Nasr 2015 The Study Quran HarperCollins p 1578 Afghan Quran burning protests What s the right way to dispose of a Quran Slate Magazine 22 February 2012 Street Brian V 2001 Literacy and Development Ethnographic Perspectives p 193 Sengers Erik 2005 Dutch and Their Gods p 129 Mir Mustansir 1995 Tafsir In John L Esposito The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World Oxford Oxford University Press Farooqi M I H Cedar or Lote Tree in the Light of al Quran A Scientific Study IRFI Retrieved 20 February 2025 Godlas Alan 2008 No tile given The Blackwell companion to the Qur an Paperback ed Wiley Blackwell pp 350 362 ISBN 978 1 4051 8820 3 Sands Kristin Zahra 2006 Sufi commentaries on the Qur an in classical Islam 1 publ transferred to digital print ed Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 36685 4 Corbin 1993 Quraishi Asifa 2007 Interpreting the Qur an and the Constitution Similarities in the Use of Text Tradition and Reason in Islamic and American Jurisprudence SSRN Electronic Journal doi 10 2139 ssrn 963142 ISSN 1556 5068 S2CID 143088125 Nakissa Aria 20 May 2019 The Anthropology of Islamic Law Education Ethics and Legal Interpretation at Egypt s Al Azhar Oxford Academic 258 doi 10 1093 oso 9780190932886 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 093288 6 Retrieved 29 December 2023 Tabataba I Allamah The Outward and Inward Aspects of the Qur an Tafseer Al Mizan lt Allamah Muhammad Hussein Tabatabai gt Archived from the original on 5 July 2008 Retrieved 16 February 2021 Mojaddedi Jawid 2008 No title given The Blackwell companion to the Qur an Paperback ed Wiley Blackwell pp 363 373 ISBN 978 1 4051 8820 3 Elias Jamal 2010 Sufi tafsir Reconsidered Exploring the Development of a Genre Journal of Qur anic Studies 12 1 2 41 55 doi 10 3366 jqs 2010 0104 Aslan Reza 20 November 2008 How To Read the Quran Slate Retrieved 21 November 2008 Fatani Afnan 2006 Translation and the Qur an in Leaman Oliver ed The Qur an an Encyclopedia New York Routledge pp 657 69 ISBN 978 0 415 32639 1 Al Jarf Reima Itineraries in the Translation History of the Quran A guide for Translation Students PDF ERIC Institute of Education Sciences University of Tartu Estonia p 5 Retrieved 22 August 2024 There are occasional misinterpretations mistranslations and even distortions Translating the meanings of the Holy Quran has always been challenging for translators as the Quran has an exoteric and an esoteric meaning Ideologic Presuppositions Behind Translation A Case Study of the Orientalist English Translations of the Quran PDF 31 August 2024 The ideological factor in the translation of sensitive issues from the Quran into English Spanish and Catalan PDF 31 August 2024 Archived PDF from the original on 22 August 2024 Retrieved 22 August 2024 The Virgins and the Grapes the Christian Origins of the Koran Archived from the original on 17 April 2009 An Nawawi Al Majmu Cairo Matba at at Tadamun n d 380 English Translations of the Quran Monthly Crescent July 2009 Archived from the original on 29 April 2014 C E Bosworth Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed Brill Al Tabari Abu Djafar Muhammad b Djarir b Yazid Vol 10 p 14 More than 300 publishers visit Quran exhibition in Iran Hurriyet Daily News and Economic Review 12 August 2010 Bloom Jonathan Blair Sheila 2002 Islam A Thousand Years of Faith and Power New Haven Yale University Press p 42 ISBN 978 0 300 09422 0 Al i Imran The Family of Imran Part 1 Read Quran Online Archived from the original on 18 November 2010 Retrieved 21 November 2010 Pal Amaninder 5 May 2016 4 April Gurmukhi translation of Quran traced to Moga village The Tribune Archived from the original on 6 May 2016 Retrieved 26 August 2016 Alya Karame Qur ans from the Eastern Islamic World between the 4th 10th and 6th 12th Centuries PDF The University of Edinburgh p 109 Leaman Oliver ed 2006 The Qur an an Encyclopedia New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 32639 1 Art and the Qur an by Tamara Sonn pp 71 81 Reading by Stefan Wild pp 532 35 Thanawi Qari Izhar 21 January 2019 The Great Imam of Qira ah Muhammad Ibn al Jazari IlmGate Retrieved 9 September 2020 Taha Shoeb 2 February 2018 28 September 2017 Khalaf from Hamzah A look at the features of recitation of al Qur an by Shahzada Husain Bhaisaheb The Dawoodi Bohras Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 Ejaz Taj 6 September 2018 A Meeting with the Egyptian Giants al Minshawi al Huṣri Muṣṭafa Ismaʿil and ʿAbdul Basit ʿAbdus Ṣamad islam21c com Archived from the original on 18 May 2020 Retrieved 18 May 2020 Frishkopf Michael 28 December 2009 Mediated Qur anic Recitation and the Contestation of Islam in Contemporary Egypt In Nooshin Laundan ed In Music and Play of Power in the Middle East London Routledge ISBN 978 0 7546 3457 7 Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 via pdfslide net Best Quran Recitation Competition for Students Planned in Egypt iqna ir 4 May 2020 Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 Nelson Kristina 2001 The art of reciting the Qur an New ed Cairo u a American Univ in Cairo Press ISBN 978 977 424 594 7 Rippin 2006 Written Transmission by Francois Deroche pp 172 87 Recitation by Anna M Gade pp 481 93 Small Keith E 2011 Textual Criticism and Qur an Manuscripts Lexington Books pp 109 111 ISBN 978 0 7391 4291 2 Melchert Christopher 2008 The Relation of the Ten Readings to One Another Journal of Quranic Studies 10 2 73 87 doi 10 3366 e1465359109000424 Hekmat Nasser Shady 2012 The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Quran The Problem of Tawatur and the Emergence of Shawdhdh Brill Academic Pub ISBN 978 90 04 24081 0 Al Hurr al Amili Muhammad 2003 Combat with the Self Saqi Books November 8 2003 ISBN 978 1904063148 Archived from the original on 9 October 2023 Retrieved 19 July 2024 Dutton Yasin 2001 An Early Mushaf According To The Reading Of Ibn ʻAmir Journal of Qur anic Studies 3 2 71 89 doi 10 3366 jqs 2001 3 1 71 Rabb Intisar 2006 Non Canonical Readings of the Qur an Recognition and Authenticity The Ḥimṣi Reading Journal of Qur anic Studies 8 2 88 127 doi 10 3366 jqs 2006 8 2 84 Ibn Taymiyyah Ahmed 2004 Majmoo al Fatawa in Arabic Vol 12 Madinah Saudi Arabia King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran pp 576 578 Deroche Francois 2006 Written Transmission In Rippin Andrew et al eds The Blackwell Companion to the Qur an 2a reimpr ed Blackwell pp 172 87 ISBN 978 1 4051 1752 4 Riddell Peter G Street Tony Johns Anthony Hearle 1997 Islam essays on scripture thought and society a festschrift in honour of Anthony H Johns Leiden Brill pp 170 74 ISBN 978 90 04 10692 5
