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In semantics, a predicand is an argument in an utterance, specifically that of which something is predicated. By extension, in syntax, it is the constituent in a clause typically functioning as the subject.: 76
Examples
In the most typical cases, the predicand corresponds to the subject of a clause, and the predicate corresponds to a verb phrase (VP) that is the head of the clause. But there are also form-meaning mismatches, where the predicand is not a subject or where the predicate is not the head of the clause. Also, not every utterance has a predicand.
When predicates correspond to the head of the clause
The typical case involves a predicand corresponding to the subject and a predicate corresponding to a verb phrase that is the head of the clause.
Subject predicands
Predicands are usually expressed in the utterance, and they are typically the subject. In the English example (1), the predicand is the person being spoken to, which corresponds to the subject you.
Do
you
SUBJ
want
a
coffee?
Unexpressed predicands
In many languages, pronominal subjects can be dropped, but this doesn't drop a predicand. For instance, in the Spanish example (2), there is no subject, but the predicand is still the person being spoken to.
¿Quieres
want-2SG
un
a
café?
coffee
"Do you want a coffee?"
If the subject is not included, the predicand can be ambiguous, as shown in the Japanese example (3).
あつい。
atsui
hot
"It's hot."
When (3) is spoken, it can be interpreted as "it's hot" where the predicand is the ambient temperature, or it can mean that an object is hot to the touch, in which case, the predicand would be the object in question.
Predicands are usually unexpressed in imperative clauses, but they are usually the person or people being addressed.: 32
Non-subject predicands
There are cases in which the predicand has a syntactic function other than subject. This happens in raising constructions, such as (4).
What
makes
you
OBJ
think
that?
Here, you is the object of the make verb phrase, the head of the main clause. But it's also the predicand of the subordinate think clause, which has no subject.: 216
Another example is in object predicands such as (5).: 9
He
made
Kim
OBJ
happy
Predicates other than head of the clause
Adjuncts with subject predicands
A modifier can be a predicate. Often this is a VP as in (6a), but it can also be an adjective phrase, as in (6b). In both cases the relevant modifier is underlined.
6a Sitting next to her, I was happy. b I kept quiet, happy just to be there.
In both cases, the predicand is the speaker, which corresponds to the subject. Note that the predicand has two predicates in each case: the modifier and the head VP.
Adjuncts with unexpressed predicands
Like (2 & 3), adjunct can have unexpressed predicands. In (7), the underlined adjunct VP has no expressed predicand. The predicand in this case is the protagonist, Orlando. This kind of construction has traditionally been seen as a dangling modifier, though Donaldson argues otherwise.
7 Driving past Buckingham Palace last night, there was not a trace of that vast erection. (Orlando: A Biography)
Adjuncts with non-subject predicands
Similar to (4), adjuncts can take non-subject predicands. In (8), even though several things is the subject of the clause and John is the object of the preposition to, the underlined adjunct VP has John as its predicand.
8 Approaching the front of class, several things stood out to John.
In cleft sentences such as It's you who was right, the subject is the dummy pronoun it, but the predicand is the person being addressed, which corresponds to a complement in the VP. The predicate here is the VP in the relative clause modifier was right.
Verbless clauses
In verbless clauses, a predicate may be a constituent such as prepositional phrase.: 222 An example is shown in (9), with the predicate underlined.
9 My hands in my pockets, I waited.
Here, the predicand is the hands of the speaker, denoted by the subject of the verbless clause my hands in my pockets.
Utterances without a predicand
Utterances need not have a predicand. For example, an exclamation of Putain! in French after a painful bump has no predicand.
Impersonal verbs, such as rain in English or havazik "snow" in Hungarian also seem to have no predicand at all.
Predicands and thematic roles
A predicand is typically a subject, and subjects typically have the thematic role of agent. Nevertheless, the predicand is by no means limited to this role.
References
- Aarts, Bas (2014). The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar. Oxford University Press. OCLC 961478264.
- Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005). A student's introduction to English grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Watson, Janet C. E. (1993). A Syntax of Ṣanʻānī Arabic. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 96. ISBN 978-3-447-03392-3.
- "あつい - Wiktionary". en.wiktionary.org. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
- Buliekova, Anna (2020-01-29). "Word-order variation of some object complements".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - Donaldson, James (2020). Control in free adjuncts: The "dangling modifier" in English. School of Philosophy, Psychology & Language Sciences (Doctoral dissertation). Edinburgh.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Perlmutter, David; Postal, Paul (1984). "The 1-advancement exclusiveness law". Studies in Relational Grammar 2. Chicago. pp. 81–125.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Predicand news newspapers books scholar JSTOR May 2021 Learn how and when to remove this message In semantics a predicand is an argument in an utterance specifically that of which something is predicated By extension in syntax it is the constituent in a clause typically functioning as the subject 76 ExamplesIn the most typical cases the predicand corresponds to the subject of a clause and the predicate corresponds to a verb phrase VP that is the head of the clause But there are also form meaning mismatches where the predicand is not a subject or where the predicate is not the head of the clause Also not every utterance has a predicand When predicates correspond to the head of the clause The typical case involves a predicand corresponding to the subject and a predicate corresponding to a verb phrase that is the head of the clause Subject predicands Predicands are usually expressed in the utterance and they are typically the subject In the English example 1 the predicand is the person being spoken to which corresponds to the subject you 1 Do you SUBJwant a coffee Do you want a coffee SUBJ Unexpressed predicands In many languages pronominal subjects can be dropped but this doesn t drop a predicand For instance in the Spanish example 2 there is no subject but the predicand is still the person being spoken to 2 Quieres want 2SGun acafe coffee Quieres un cafe want 2SG a coffee Do you want a coffee If the subject is not included the predicand can be ambiguous as shown in the Japanese example 3 3 あつい atsui hot あつい atsui hot It s hot When 3 is spoken it can be interpreted as it s hot where the predicand is the ambient temperature or it can mean that an object is hot to the touch in which case the predicand would be the object in question Predicands are usually unexpressed in imperative clauses but they are usually the person or people being addressed 32 Non subject predicands There are cases in which the predicand has a syntactic function other than subject This happens in raising constructions such as 4 4 What makes you OBJthink that What makes you think that OBJ Here you is the object of the make verb phrase the head of the main clause But it s also the predicand of the subordinate think clause which has no subject 216 Another example is in object predicands such as 5 9 5 He made Kim OBJhappy He made Kim happy OBJ Predicates other than head of the clause Adjuncts with subject predicands A modifier can be a predicate Often this is a VP as in 6a but it can also be an adjective phrase as in 6b In both cases the relevant modifier is underlined 6a Sitting next to her I was happy b I kept quiet happy just to be there In both cases the predicand is the speaker which corresponds to the subject Note that the predicand has two predicates in each case the modifier and the head VP Adjuncts with unexpressed predicands Like 2 amp 3 adjunct can have unexpressed predicands In 7 the underlined adjunct VP has no expressed predicand The predicand in this case is the protagonist Orlando This kind of construction has traditionally been seen as a dangling modifier though Donaldson argues otherwise 7 Driving past Buckingham Palace last night there was not a trace of that vast erection Orlando A Biography Adjuncts with non subject predicands Similar to 4 adjuncts can take non subject predicands In 8 even though several things is the subject of the clause and John is the object of the preposition to the underlined adjunct VP has John as its predicand 8 Approaching the front of class several things stood out to John In cleft sentences such as It s you who was right the subject is the dummy pronoun it but the predicand is the person being addressed which corresponds to a complement in the VP The predicate here is the VP in the relative clause modifier was right Verbless clauses In verbless clauses a predicate may be a constituent such as prepositional phrase 222 An example is shown in 9 with the predicate underlined 9 My hands in my pockets I waited Here the predicand is the hands of the speaker denoted by the subject of the verbless clause my hands in my pockets Utterances without a predicand Utterances need not have a predicand For example an exclamation of Putain in French after a painful bump has no predicand Impersonal verbs such as rain in English or havazik snow in Hungarian also seem to have no predicand at all Predicands and thematic rolesA predicand is typically a subject and subjects typically have the thematic role of agent Nevertheless the predicand is by no means limited to this role ReferencesAarts Bas 2014 The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar Oxford University Press OCLC 961478264 Huddleston Rodney Pullum Geoffrey K 2005 A student s introduction to English grammar Cambridge Cambridge University Press Watson Janet C E 1993 A Syntax of Ṣanʻani Arabic Otto Harrassowitz Verlag p 96 ISBN 978 3 447 03392 3 あつい Wiktionary en wiktionary org Retrieved 2021 04 24 Buliekova Anna 2020 01 29 Word order variation of some object complements a href wiki Template Cite journal title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Donaldson James 2020 Control in free adjuncts The dangling modifier in English School of Philosophy Psychology amp Language Sciences Doctoral dissertation Edinburgh a href wiki Template Cite book title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Perlmutter David Postal Paul 1984 The 1 advancement exclusiveness law Studies in Relational Grammar 2 Chicago pp 81 125 a href wiki Template Cite book title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link
