The philosophes (French for 'philosophers') were the intellectuals of the 18th-century European Enlightenment. Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues. They had a critical eye and looked for weaknesses and failures that needed improvement. They promoted a "Republic of Letters" that crossed national boundaries and allowed intellectuals to freely exchange books and ideas. Most philosophes were men, but some were women.
They strongly endorsed progress and tolerance, as they distrusted organized religion (most were deists) and feudal institutions. Many contributed to Diderot's Encyclopédie. They faded away after the French Revolution reached a violent stage in 1793.
Characterization
Philosophe is the French word for "philosopher," and was a word that the French Enlightenment thinkers usually applied to themselves. The philosophes, like many ancient philosophers, were public intellectuals dedicated to solving the real problems of the world. They wrote on subjects ranging from current affairs to art criticism, and they wrote in every conceivable format. The Swiss philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau, for example, wrote a political tract, a treatise on education, constitutions for Poland and Corsica, an analysis of the effects of the theater on public morals, a best-selling novel, an opera, and a highly influential autobiography. The philosophes wrote for a broadly educated public of readers who snatched up every Enlightenment book they could find at their local booksellers, even when rulers or churches tried to forbid such works.
Between 1740 and 1789, the Enlightenment acquired its name and, despite heated conflicts between the philosophes and state and religious authorities, gained support in the highest reaches of government. Although philosophe is a French word, the Enlightenment was distinctly cosmopolitan; philosophes could be found from Philadelphia to Saint Petersburg. The philosophes considered themselves part of a grand "republic of letters" that transcended national political boundaries. In 1784, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant summed up the program of the Enlightenment in two Latin words: sapere aude, "dare to know", meaning, have the courage to think for yourself. The philosophes used reason to attack superstition, bigotry, and religious fanaticism, which they considered the chief obstacles to free thought and social reform. Voltaire took religious fanaticism as his chief target: "Once fanaticism has corrupted a mind, the malady is almost incurable" and that "the only remedy for this epidemic malady is the philosophical spirit".
Enlightenment writers did not necessarily oppose organized religion, but they strenuously objected to religious intolerance. They believed that a society based around reason instead of religious fanaticism would improve the way people think and culminate in a more critical, scientific outlook on social issues and problems. The philosophes believed that the dissemination of knowledge would encourage reform in every aspect of life, from the grain trade to the penal system. Chief among their desired reforms was intellectual freedom—the freedom to use one's own reason and to publish the results. The philosophes wanted freedom of the press and freedom of religion, which they considered "natural rights" guaranteed by "natural law." In their view, progress depended on these freedoms.
Usage in modern English
The word "philosophe" has been used in English since the Middle Ages. Horace Walpole in 1779 remarked that "[t]he philosophes, except Buffon, are solemn, arrogant, dictatorial coxcombs."
Scholars differ concerning whether the word should be applied to all Enlightenment thinkers or be restricted to only the French philosophers. Historian Peter Gay, for example, uses it to apply to all Enlightenment philosophers "from Edinburgh to Naples, Paris to Berlin, Boston to Philadelphia".
Notable philosophes
- John Locke (1632–1704)
- Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)
- Charles Montesquieu (1689–1755)
- Voltaire (1694–1778)
- Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)
- Gabriel Bonnot de Mably (1709–1785)
- David Hume (1711–1776)
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
- Denis Diderot (1713–1784)
- Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715–1771)
- Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783)
- Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789)
- Adam Smith (1723–1790)
- Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
- Thomas Paine (1737–1809)
- Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794)
- Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794)
- Francesco Mario Pagano (1748–1799)
- Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
- Henri de Saint-Simon (1760–1825)
- Charles Fourier (1772–1837)
See also
- Idea of Progress
- The Enlightenment
Notes
- Kishlansky, Mark, et al. A Brief History of Western Civilization: The Unfinished Legacy, volume II: Since 1555. (5th ed. 2007).
- Richard Hooker, "The Philosophes," (1996) online Archived 2018-07-05 at the Wayback Machine
- Isaac Kramnick, The Portable Enlightenment Reader, Harmondsworth, 1995, pp. 21–22
- Voltaire (1764). "Fanatisme". Dictionnaire philosophique (in French).
Il n'est d'autre remède à cette maladie épidémique que l'esprit philosophique [...] Lorsqu'une fois le fanatisme a gangrené un cerveau, la maladie est presque incurable.
- L. Hunt, "The Making of the West" Volume C, Bedford St. Martins, 2008, p. 556
- Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed. online 2009)
- George Agar-Ellis, ed. (1844). Letters to sir Horace Mann. p. 165.
- L.G. Crocker, "Interpreting the Enlightenment: a political approach", Journal of History of Ideas 46 (1985), pp. 211-30
- Peter Gay, The Enlightenment - An Interpretation 1: The Rise of Modern Paganism, (1995) p. 3.
References
- The Philosophes
- Gay, Peter. The Enlightenment - An Interpretation 1: The Rise of Modern Paganism, (1995). ISBN 0-393-31302-6.
- Reill, Peter Hans and Ellen Judy Wilson. Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (2004)
The philosophes French for philosophers were the intellectuals of the 18th century European Enlightenment Few were primarily philosophers rather philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning including philosophy history science politics economics and social issues They had a critical eye and looked for weaknesses and failures that needed improvement They promoted a Republic of Letters that crossed national boundaries and allowed intellectuals to freely exchange books and ideas Most philosophes were men but some were women They strongly endorsed progress and tolerance as they distrusted organized religion most were deists and feudal institutions Many contributed to Diderot s Encyclopedie They faded away after the French Revolution reached a violent stage in 1793 CharacterizationPhilosophe is the French word for philosopher and was a word that the French Enlightenment thinkers usually applied to themselves The philosophes like many ancient philosophers were public intellectuals dedicated to solving the real problems of the world They wrote on subjects ranging from current affairs to art criticism and they wrote in every conceivable format The Swiss philosophe Jean Jacques Rousseau for example wrote a political tract a treatise on education constitutions for Poland and Corsica an analysis of the effects of the theater on public morals a best selling novel an opera and a highly influential autobiography The philosophes wrote for a broadly educated public of readers who snatched up every Enlightenment book they could find at their local booksellers even when rulers or churches tried to forbid such works Between 1740 and 1789 the Enlightenment acquired its name and despite heated conflicts between the philosophes and state and religious authorities gained support in the highest reaches of government Although philosophe is a French word the Enlightenment was distinctly cosmopolitan philosophes could be found from Philadelphia to Saint Petersburg The philosophes considered themselves part of a grand republic of letters that transcended national political boundaries In 1784 the German philosopher Immanuel Kant summed up the program of the Enlightenment in two Latin words sapere aude dare to know meaning have the courage to think for yourself The philosophes used reason to attack superstition bigotry and religious fanaticism which they considered the chief obstacles to free thought and social reform Voltaire took religious fanaticism as his chief target Once fanaticism has corrupted a mind the malady is almost incurable and that the only remedy for this epidemic malady is the philosophical spirit Enlightenment writers did not necessarily oppose organized religion but they strenuously objected to religious intolerance They believed that a society based around reason instead of religious fanaticism would improve the way people think and culminate in a more critical scientific outlook on social issues and problems The philosophes believed that the dissemination of knowledge would encourage reform in every aspect of life from the grain trade to the penal system Chief among their desired reforms was intellectual freedom the freedom to use one s own reason and to publish the results The philosophes wanted freedom of the press and freedom of religion which they considered natural rights guaranteed by natural law In their view progress depended on these freedoms Usage in modern EnglishThe word philosophe has been used in English since the Middle Ages Horace Walpole in 1779 remarked that t he philosophes except Buffon are solemn arrogant dictatorial coxcombs Scholars differ concerning whether the word should be applied to all Enlightenment thinkers or be restricted to only the French philosophers Historian Peter Gay for example uses it to apply to all Enlightenment philosophers from Edinburgh to Naples Paris to Berlin Boston to Philadelphia Notable philosophesJohn Locke 1632 1704 Baruch Spinoza 1632 1677 Charles Montesquieu 1689 1755 Voltaire 1694 1778 Benjamin Franklin 1706 1790 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 1709 1785 David Hume 1711 1776 Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712 1778 Denis Diderot 1713 1784 Claude Adrien Helvetius 1715 1771 Jean le Rond d Alembert 1717 1783 Baron d Holbach 1723 1789 Adam Smith 1723 1790 Immanuel Kant 1724 1804 Thomas Paine 1737 1809 Cesare Beccaria 1738 1794 Marquis de Condorcet 1743 1794 Francesco Mario Pagano 1748 1799 Mary Wollstonecraft 1759 1797 Henri de Saint Simon 1760 1825 Charles Fourier 1772 1837 See alsoIdea of Progress The EnlightenmentNotesKishlansky Mark et al A Brief History of Western Civilization The Unfinished Legacy volume II Since 1555 5th ed 2007 Richard Hooker The Philosophes 1996 online Archived 2018 07 05 at the Wayback Machine Isaac Kramnick The Portable Enlightenment Reader Harmondsworth 1995 pp 21 22 Voltaire 1764 Fanatisme Dictionnaire philosophique in French Il n est d autre remede a cette maladie epidemique que l esprit philosophique Lorsqu une fois le fanatisme a gangrene un cerveau la maladie est presque incurable L Hunt The Making of the West Volume C Bedford St Martins 2008 p 556 Oxford English Dictionary 2nd ed online 2009 George Agar Ellis ed 1844 Letters to sir Horace Mann p 165 L G Crocker Interpreting the Enlightenment a political approach Journal of History of Ideas 46 1985 pp 211 30 Peter Gay The Enlightenment An Interpretation 1 The Rise of Modern Paganism 1995 p 3 ReferencesThe Philosophes Gay Peter The Enlightenment An Interpretation 1 The Rise of Modern Paganism 1995 ISBN 0 393 31302 6 Reill Peter Hans and Ellen Judy Wilson Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment 2004
