Modern English, sometimes called New English (NE) or present-day English (PDE) as opposed to Middle and Old English, is the form of the English language that has been spoken since the Great Vowel Shift in England, which began in the late 14th century and was completed by the 17th century.
| Modern English | |
|---|---|
| New English present-day English | |
| English | |
| Region | English-speaking world |
| Era | 17th century AD – present |
Early forms | |
| Latin script (English alphabet) English Braille, Unified English Braille | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 | en |
| ISO 639-2 | eng |
| ISO 639-3 | eng |
| Glottolog | stan1293 |
| Linguasphere | 52-ABA |
With some differences in vocabulary, texts which date from the early 17th century, such as the works of William Shakespeare and the King James Bible, are considered Modern English texts, or more specifically, they are referred to as texts which were written in Early Modern English or they are referred to as texts which were written in Elizabethan English. Through colonization, English was adopted in many regions of the world by the British Empire, such as Anglo-America, the Indian subcontinent, Africa, Australia and New Zealand.
Modern English has many dialects spoken in many countries throughout the world, sometimes collectively referred to as the English-speaking world. These dialects include (but are not limited to) American, Australian, British (containing Anglo-English, Scottish English and Welsh English), Canadian, New Zealand, Caribbean, Hiberno-English (including Ulster English), Indian, Sri Lankan, Pakistani, Nigerian, Philippine, Singaporean, and South African English.
According to the Ethnologue, there are almost one billion speakers of English as a first or second language. English is spoken as a first or a second language in many countries, with most native speakers being in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland. It "has more non-native speakers than any other language, is more widely dispersed around the world and is used for more purposes than any other language". Its large number of speakers, plus its worldwide presence, have made English a common language (lingua franca) "of the airlines, of the sea and shipping, of computer technology, of science and indeed of (global) communication generally".
Development
Modern English evolved from Early Modern English which was used from the beginning of the Tudor period until the Interregnum and Stuart Restoration in England. By the late 18th century, the British Empire had facilitated the spread of Modern English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. Modern English also facilitated worldwide international communication. English was adopted in North America, India, parts of Africa, Australia, and many other regions. In the post-colonial period, some newly created nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using Modern English as the official language to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting one indigenous language above another.
Outline of changes
The following is an outline of the major changes in Modern English compared to its previous form (Middle English), and also some major changes in English over the course of the 20th century. Note, however, that these are generalizations, and some of these may not be true for specific dialects:
Morphology
- "like", "same as", and "immediately" are used as conjunctions.
- "The" becomes optional before certain combinations of noun phrases and proper names.
Pronouns
- Loss of distinction in most dialects between "whom" and "who" in favour of the latter.
- The elevation of singular they to some formal registers.
- Placement of frequency adverbs before auxiliary verbs.
Verbs
- Regularisation of some English irregular verbs.
- Revival of the present ("mandative") English subjunctive.
- "Will" preferred to "shall" to mark the future tense in the first person.
- Do-support for the verb "have".
- Increase in multi-word verbs.
- Development of auxiliary verbs "wanna", "gonna", "gotta" in informal discourse.
- Usage of English progressive verbs in certain present perfect and past perfect forms.
Phonology
Up until the American–British split (1600–1725), some major phonological changes in English included:
- Initial cluster reductions, like of /ɡn, kn/ into /n/: making homophones of gnat and nat, and not and knot.
- The meet–meat merger in most dialects: making the words "meat", "threat" and "great" have three different vowels, although all three words once rhymed.
- The foot–strut split: so that "cut" and "put", and "pudding" and "budding" no longer rhyme; and "putt" and "put" are no longer homophones.
- The lot–cloth split: the vowel in words like "cloth" and "off" is pronounced with the vowel in "thought", as opposed to the vowel used in "lot".
After the American-British split, further changes to English phonology included:
- Non-rhotic (/ɹ/-dropping) accents develop in the English of England, Australasia, and South Africa.
- Happy-tensing: final lax [ɪ] becomes tense [i] in words like "happy". Absent from some dialects.
- Yod-dropping: the elision of /j/ in certain consonant clusters, like those found in "chute", "rude", "blue", "chews", and "Zeus".
- Wine–whine merger from the reduction of /ʍ/ to /w/ in all national standard varieties of English, except Scottish and Irish.
- In North American and Australasian English, /t, d/ are reduced to an alveolar tap between vowels, realised as [t̬] or [ɾ].
- Cot–caught merger the merger of /ɔ/ and /ɑ/ to /ɑ/ in some dialects of General American.
Syntax
- disuse of the T–V distinction (thou, ye). Contemporary Modern English usually retains only the formal second-person personal pronoun, "you" (ye), used in both formal and informal contexts.
- use of auxiliary verbs becomes mandatory in interrogative sentences.
- "less", rather than "fewer", is used for countable nouns.
- For English comparisons, syntactic comparison (more) is preferred to analytic comparison (-er).
- Usage of the Saxon genitive ('s) has extended beyond human referents.
Alphabet
Changes in alphabet and spelling were heavily influenced by the advent of printing and continental printing practices.
- The letter thorn (þ), which began to be replaced by th as early as Middle English, finally fell into disuse. In Early Modern English printing, thorn was represented with the Latin y, which appeared similar to thorn in blackletter typeface (𝖞). The last vestige of the letter was in ligatures of thorn, ye (thee), yt (that), yu (thou), which were still seen occasionally in the King James Bible of 1611 and in Shakespeare's folios.
- The letters i and j, previously written as a single letter, began to be distinguished; likewise for u and v. This was a common development of the Latin alphabet during this period.
Consequently, Modern English came to use a purely Latin alphabet of 26 letters.
See also
- History of English
- International English
References
Citations
- Terttu Nevalainen: An Introduction to Early Modern English, Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 1
- Sihler 2000, p. xvi.
- Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2016). "English". Ethnologue. SIL International. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
Total users in all countries: 942,533,930 (as L1: 339,370,920; as L2: 603,163,010)
- Algeo & Pyles 2004, p. 222.
- Nevalainen, Terttu (2006). An Introduction to Early Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
- Romaine 2006, p. 586.
- Mufwene 2006, p. 614.
- Leech, Geoffrey; Hundt, Marianne; Mair, Christian; Smith, Nicholas (2009). Change in Contemporary English. pp. 18–19. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511642210. ISBN 978-0-521-86722-1.
Sources
- Algeo, John; Pyles, Thomas (2004). The Origins and Development of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage. ISBN 978-0-155-07055-4.
- Mufwene, S.S. (2006). "Language Spread". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 613–616. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01291-8. ISBN 978-0-08-044854-1.
- Romaine, S. (2006). "Language Policy in Multilingual Educational Contexts". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 584–596. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00646-5. ISBN 978-0-08-044854-1.
- Sihler, Andrew L. (2000), Language History: An Introduction, Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, vol. 191, John Benjamins, ISBN 978-9027236982
External links
- English at Ethnologue
Modern English sometimes called New English NE or present day English PDE as opposed to Middle and Old English is the form of the English language that has been spoken since the Great Vowel Shift in England which began in the late 14th century and was completed by the 17th century Modern EnglishNew English present day EnglishEnglishRegionEnglish speaking worldEra17th century AD presentLanguage familyIndo European GermanicWest GermanicNorth Sea GermanicAnglo FrisianAnglicEnglishModern EnglishEarly formsProto Indo European Proto Germanic Proto West Germanic Proto English Old English Middle English Early Modern EnglishWriting systemLatin script English alphabet English Braille Unified English BrailleLanguage codesISO 639 1 span class plainlinks en span ISO 639 2 span class plainlinks eng span ISO 639 3 a href https iso639 3 sil org code eng class extiw title iso639 3 eng eng a Glottologstan1293Linguasphere52 ABA With some differences in vocabulary texts which date from the early 17th century such as the works of William Shakespeare and the King James Bible are considered Modern English texts or more specifically they are referred to as texts which were written in Early Modern English or they are referred to as texts which were written in Elizabethan English Through colonization English was adopted in many regions of the world by the British Empire such as Anglo America the Indian subcontinent Africa Australia and New Zealand Modern English has many dialects spoken in many countries throughout the world sometimes collectively referred to as the English speaking world These dialects include but are not limited to American Australian British containing Anglo English Scottish English and Welsh English Canadian New Zealand Caribbean Hiberno English including Ulster English Indian Sri Lankan Pakistani Nigerian Philippine Singaporean and South African English According to the Ethnologue there are almost one billion speakers of English as a first or second language English is spoken as a first or a second language in many countries with most native speakers being in the United States the United Kingdom Australia Canada New Zealand and Ireland It has more non native speakers than any other language is more widely dispersed around the world and is used for more purposes than any other language Its large number of speakers plus its worldwide presence have made English a common language lingua franca of the airlines of the sea and shipping of computer technology of science and indeed of global communication generally DevelopmentModern English evolved from Early Modern English which was used from the beginning of the Tudor period until the Interregnum and Stuart Restoration in England By the late 18th century the British Empire had facilitated the spread of Modern English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance Commerce science and technology diplomacy art and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language Modern English also facilitated worldwide international communication English was adopted in North America India parts of Africa Australia and many other regions In the post colonial period some newly created nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using Modern English as the official language to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting one indigenous language above another Outline of changesThe following is an outline of the major changes in Modern English compared to its previous form Middle English and also some major changes in English over the course of the 20th century Note however that these are generalizations and some of these may not be true for specific dialects Morphology like same as and immediately are used as conjunctions The becomes optional before certain combinations of noun phrases and proper names Pronouns Loss of distinction in most dialects between whom and who in favour of the latter The elevation of singular they to some formal registers Placement of frequency adverbs before auxiliary verbs Verbs Regularisation of some English irregular verbs Revival of the present mandative English subjunctive Will preferred to shall to mark the future tense in the first person Do support for the verb have Increase in multi word verbs Development of auxiliary verbs wanna gonna gotta in informal discourse Usage of English progressive verbs in certain present perfect and past perfect forms Phonology Up until the American British split 1600 1725 some major phonological changes in English included Initial cluster reductions like of ɡn kn into n making homophones of gnat and nat and not and knot The meet meat merger in most dialects making the words meat threat and great have three different vowels although all three words once rhymed The foot strut split so that cut and put and pudding and budding no longer rhyme and putt and put are no longer homophones The lot cloth split the vowel in words like cloth and off is pronounced with the vowel in thought as opposed to the vowel used in lot After the American British split further changes to English phonology included Non rhotic ɹ dropping accents develop in the English of England Australasia and South Africa Happy tensing final lax ɪ becomes tense i in words like happy Absent from some dialects Yod dropping the elision of j in certain consonant clusters like those found in chute rude blue chews and Zeus Wine whine merger from the reduction of ʍ to w in all national standard varieties of English except Scottish and Irish In North American and Australasian English t d are reduced to an alveolar tap between vowels realised as t or ɾ Cot caught merger the merger of ɔ and ɑ to ɑ in some dialects of General American Syntax disuse of the T V distinction thou ye Contemporary Modern English usually retains only the formal second person personal pronoun you ye used in both formal and informal contexts use of auxiliary verbs becomes mandatory in interrogative sentences less rather than fewer is used for countable nouns For English comparisons syntactic comparison more is preferred to analytic comparison er Usage of the Saxon genitive s has extended beyond human referents Alphabet Changes in alphabet and spelling were heavily influenced by the advent of printing and continental printing practices The letter thorn th which began to be replaced by th as early as Middle English finally fell into disuse In Early Modern English printing thorn was represented with the Latin y which appeared similar to thorn in blackletter typeface 𝖞 The last vestige of the letter was in ligatures of thorn ye thee yt that yu thou which were still seen occasionally in the King James Bible of 1611 and in Shakespeare s folios The letters i and j previously written as a single letter began to be distinguished likewise for u and v This was a common development of the Latin alphabet during this period Consequently Modern English came to use a purely Latin alphabet of 26 letters See alsoLanguage portalHistory of English International EnglishReferencesCitations Terttu Nevalainen An Introduction to Early Modern English Oxford University Press 2006 p 1 Sihler 2000 p xvi Lewis M Paul Simons Gary F Fennig Charles D eds 2016 English Ethnologue SIL International Retrieved 22 February 2016 Total users in all countries 942 533 930 as L1 339 370 920 as L2 603 163 010 Algeo amp Pyles 2004 p 222 Nevalainen Terttu 2006 An Introduction to Early Modern English Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press Romaine 2006 p 586 Mufwene 2006 p 614 Leech Geoffrey Hundt Marianne Mair Christian Smith Nicholas 2009 Change in Contemporary English pp 18 19 doi 10 1017 CBO9780511642210 ISBN 978 0 521 86722 1 Sources Algeo John Pyles Thomas 2004 The Origins and Development of the English Language 5th ed Boston MA Wadsworth Cengage ISBN 978 0 155 07055 4 Mufwene S S 2006 Language Spread Encyclopedia of Language amp Linguistics pp 613 616 doi 10 1016 B0 08 044854 2 01291 8 ISBN 978 0 08 044854 1 Romaine S 2006 Language Policy in Multilingual Educational Contexts Encyclopedia of Language amp Linguistics pp 584 596 doi 10 1016 B0 08 044854 2 00646 5 ISBN 978 0 08 044854 1 Sihler Andrew L 2000 Language History An Introduction Current Issues in Linguistic Theory vol 191 John Benjamins ISBN 978 9027236982External linksEnglish at Ethnologue
