Deportation

Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people by a state from its sovereign territory. The actual definition changes depending on the place and context, and it also changes over time. A person who has been deported or is under sentence of deportation is called a deportee.

Prisoners and gendarmes on the road to Siberia, 1845

Certificate of identity of a deported individual, among the Chinese deportation records of the US District court, Los Angeles County, California

Definition

Definitions of deportation vary, with some implicating "transfer beyond State borders" (distinguishing it from forcible transfer), others considering it "the actual implementation of [an expulsion] order in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily", and others differentiating removal of legal immigrants (expulsion) and illegal immigrants (deportation).

Deportation in the most general sense, in accordance with International Organization for Migration, treats expulsion and deportation as synonyms in the context of migration, adding:

"The terminology used at the domestic or international level on expulsion and deportation is not uniform but there is a clear tendency to use the term expulsion to refer to the legal order to leave the territory of a State, and removal or deportation to refer to the actual implementation of such order in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily."

According to the European Court of Human Rights, collective expulsion is any measure compelling non-nationals, as a group, to leave a country, except where such a measure is taken on the basis of a reasonable and objective examination of the particular case of each individual non-national of the group. Mass expulsion may also occur when members of an ethnic group are sent out of a state regardless of nationality. Collective expulsion, or expulsion en masse, is prohibited by several instruments of international law.

History

Antiquity

Expulsions widely occurred in ancient history, and is well-recorded particularly in ancient Mesopotamia. The kingdoms of Israel and Judah faced several forced expulsions, including deportations by the Neo-Assyrian Empire following the fall of Israel and during Sennacherib's campaign in the 8th century BC. Later, the Neo-Babylonian Empire deported much of the Judean population upon conquering Judah in 597 BC and 587 BC.

Deportation in the Achaemenid Empire

Deportation was practiced as a policy toward rebellious people in Achaemenid Empire. The precise legal status of the deportees is unclear; but ill-treatment is not recorded. Instances include:

Deportations in the Achaemenid Empire

Deported people	Deported to	Deporter
6,000 Egyptians (including the king Amyrtaeus and many artisans)	Susa	Cambyses II
Barcaeans	A village in Bactria	Darius I
Paeonians of Thrace	Sardes, Asia Minor (later returned)	Darius I
Milesians	, on the mouth of Tigris near the Persian Gulf	Darius I
Carians and	Babylonia
Eretrians	Ardericca in Susiana	Darius I
Beotians	Tigris region
Sidonian prisoners of war	Susa and Babylon	Artaxerxes III
Jews who supported the Sidonian revolt	Hyrcania	Artaxerxes III

Deportation in the Parthian Empire

Unlike in the Achaemenid and Sassanian periods, records of deportation are rare during the Arsacid Parthian period. One notable example was the deportation of the in Charax, near Rhages (Ray) by Phraates I. The 10,000 Roman prisoners of war after the Battle of Carrhae appear to have been deported to Alexandria Margiana (Merv) near the eastern border in 53 BC, who are said to married to local people. It is hypothesized that some of them founded the Chinese city of Li-Jien after becoming soldiers for the Hsiung-nu, but this is doubted.

Hyrcanus II, the Jewish king of Judea (Jerusalem), was settled among the Jews of Babylon in Parthia after being taken as captive by the Parthian-Jewish forces in 40 BC.

Roman POWs in the Antony's Parthian War may have suffered deportation.

Deportation in the Sasanian empire

Deportation was widely used by the Sasanians, especially during the wars with the Romans.

During Shapur I's reign, the Romans (including Valerian) who were defeated at the Battle of Edessa were deported to Persis. Other destinations were Parthia, Khuzestan, and Asorestan. There were cities which were founded and were populated by Romans prisoners of war, including Shadh-Shapur () in Meshan, Bishapur in Persis, Wuzurg-Shapur (Ukbara; Marw-Ḥābūr), and Gundeshapur. Agricultural land were also given to the deportees. These deportations initiated the spread Christianity in the Sassanian empire. In Rēw-Ardashīr (Rishahr; Yarānshahr), Persis, there was a church for the Romans and another one for Carmanians. Their hypothesized decisive role in the spread of Christianity in Persia and their major contribution to Persian economy has been recently criticized by Mosig-Walburg (2010). In the mid-3rd century, Greek-speaking deportees from north-western Syria were settled in Kashkar, Mesopotamia.

After the Arab incursion into Persia during Shapur II's reign, he scattered the defeated Arab tribes by deporting them to other regions. Some were deported to Bahrain and Kirman, possibly to both populate these unattractive regions (due to their climate) and bringing the tribes under control.

In 395 AD 18,000 Roman populations of Sophene, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Cappadocia were captured and deported by the "Huns". the prisoners were freed by the Persians as they reached Persia, and were settled in Slōk (Wēh Ardashīr) and Kōkbā (Kōkhē). The author of the text Liber Calipharum has praised the king Yazdegerd I (399–420) for his treatment of the deportees, who also allowed some to return.

Major deportations occurred during the Anastasian War, including Kavad I's deportation of the populations of Theodosiopolis and Amida to Arrajan (Weh-az-Amid Kavad).

Major deportations occurred during the campaigns of Khosrau I from the Roman cities of Sura, Beroea, Antioch, Apamea, Callinicum, and Batnai in Osrhoene, to Wēh-Antiyōk-Khosrow (also known as Rūmagān; in Arabic: al-Rūmiyya). The city was founded near Ctesiphon especially for them, and Khosrow reportedly "did everything in his power to make the residents want to stay". The number of the deportees is recorded to be 292,000 in another source.

Middle Ages

The Medieval European age was marked with several large religious deportations, including that of Christians, Jews and Muslims. For instance, the Almoravid deported Christians from Spain to Morocco, with mass deportations taking place in 1109, 1126, 1130 and 1138.

Modern deportation

With the beginning of the Age of Discovery, deporting individuals to an overseas colony also became common practice. As early as the 16th century, degredados formed a substantial portion of early colonists in Portuguese empire. From 1717 onward Britain deported around 40,000^: 5 British religious objectors and "criminals" to America before the practice ceased in 1776. Jailers sold the "criminals" to shipping contractors, who then sold them to plantation owners. The "criminals" worked for the plantation owner for the duration of their sentence.^: 5 After Britain lost control of the area which became the United States, Australia became the destination for "criminals" deported to British colonies. Britain transported more than 160,000^: 1 British "criminals" to the Australian colonies between 1787 and 1855.

Meanwhile, in Japan during Sakoku, all Portuguese and Spanish people were expelled from the country.

In the 18th century the Tipu Sultan, of Mysore, deported tens of thousands of civilians, from lands he had annexed, to serve as slave labour in other parts of his empire, for example the: Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam.

In the late 19th century the United States of America began designating "desired" and "undesired" immigrants, leading to the birth of illegal immigration and subsequent deportation of immigrants when found in irregular situations. Starting with the Chinese Exclusion Act, the US government has since deported more than 55 million immigrants, the majority of whom came from Latin-American countries.

At the beginning of the 20th century the control of immigration began becoming common practice, with the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 in Australia, the Aliens Act 1905 in the United Kingdom and the Continuous journey regulation of 1908 in Canada, elevating the deportation of "illegal" immigrants to a global scale.

In the meantime, deportation of "regular residents" also increased.

United States

In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, more stringent enforcement of immigration laws were ordered by the executive branch of the U.S. government, which led to increased deportation and repatriation to Mexico. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, between 355,000 and 2 million Mexicans and Mexican Americans were deported or repatriated to Mexico, an estimated 40 to 60% of whom were U.S. citizens – overwhelmingly children. At least 82,000 Mexicans were formally deported between 1929 and 1935 by the government. Voluntary repatriations were more common than deportations. In 1954, the executive branch of the U.S. government implemented Operation Wetback, a program created in response to public hysteria about immigration and immigrants from Mexico. Operation Wetback led to the deportation of nearly 1.3 million Mexicans from the United States.

Nazi Germany

People being deported during the Warsaw Ghetto uprising

Nazi policies deported homosexuals, Jews,Poles, and Romani from their established places of residence to Nazi concentration camps or extermination camps set up at a considerable distance from their original residences. During the Holocaust, the Nazis made heavy use of euphemisms, where "deportation" frequently meant the victims were subsequently killed, as opposed to simply being relocated.

Soviet Union

The Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin carried out forced mass transfers of some 6 million people during the 1930s and 1940s, resulting in millions of deaths. As many as 110 separate deportations have been catalogued, included the targeting of at least 13 distinct ethnicities and 8 entire nations. Many historians have described Soviet deportations as ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity, and/or genocide.

Independent State of Croatia

An estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from the Independent State of Croatia to German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943.

Contemporary

All countries reserve the right to deport persons without right of abode, even those who are longtime residents or possess permanent residency. In general, foreigners who have committed serious crimes, entered the country illegally, overstayed or broken the conditions of their visa, or otherwise lost their legal status to remain in the country may be administratively removed or deported.

Since the 1980s, the world also saw the development of practices of externalization/"offshoring immigrants", currently being used by Australia, Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union. Some of the countries in the Persian Gulf have even used this to deport their own citizens, paying the Comoros to give them passports and accept them.

The period after the fall of the Iron Curtain showed increased deportation and readmission agreements in parts of Europe.

During its invasion of Ukraine, the Russian Federation has perpetrated mass deportations of Ukrainian citizens to Russia and occupied territories. While independent numbers are difficult to come by, and depending on the degree of Russian coercion or force required to meet the definition of "deported", reported numbers range from tens of thousands to 4.5 million deportees.

Dominican Republic deported more than 250,000 Haitians and Dominicans of Haitian descent to Haiti in 2023.

Noteworthy deportees

Alexander Berkman, Emma Goldman, C.L.R. James, Claudia Jones, Fritz Julius Kuhn, Lucky Luciano, and Anna Sage were all deported from the United States by being arrested and brought to the federal immigration control station on Ellis Island in New York Harbor and, from there, forcibly removed from the United States on ships.

Opposition

Anarchists protesting against deportations

Many criticize deportations as inhumane, as well as questioning their effectiveness. Some are completely opposed towards any deportations, while others state it is inhumane to take somebody to a foreign land without their consent.

In popular culture

In literature, deportation appears as an overriding theme in the 1935 novel, Strange Passage by Theodore D. Irwin. Films depicting or dealing with fictional cases of deportation are many and varied. Among them are Ellis Island (1936), Exile Express (1939), Five Came Back (1939), Deported (1950), and Gambling House (1951). More recently, Shottas (2002) treated the issue of U.S. deportation to the Caribbean post-1997.

See also

• Ethnic cleansing
• Forced migration
• Acadian deportation
• Diaspora
• Denaturalization
• Depopulation of Diego Garcia
• Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)
• Impediment to expulsion
• Indian Removal Act
• Israelite deportation
• June deportation
• Operation Priboi
• Penal transportation
• Population transfer
• Population transfer in the Soviet Union
• Prussian deportations of 1885–1890
• Remigration
• Removal proceedings
• Seminole Wars
• Soviet deportations from Estonia
• Exile

References

Notes

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3. "Aliens, Expulsion and Deportation". Oxford Public International Law.
4. Jean-Marie Henckaerts in his book Mass Expulsion in Modern International Law and Practice wrote:

   As far as deportation is concerned, there is no general feature that clearly sets it apart from expulsion. Both term basically indicate the same phenomenon. ... The only difference seems to be one of preferential use, expulsion being more an international term while deportation is more used in municipal law. ... One study [discusses this distinction] but immediately adds that in modern practice both terms have become interchangeable.

   See Jean-Marie Henckaerts (1995). Mass Expulsion in Modern International Law and Practice. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 5–6. ISBN 90-411-0072-5.
5. "Definition of DEPORTEE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2021-02-25.
6. "Disguised Extradition, i.e., Surrender by Other Means". Council of Europe.
7. "International Migration Law No. 34 – Glossary on Migration". IOM. 19 June 2019.
8. W. Kälin, "Aliens, Expulsion and Deportation" in R. Wolfrum (ed) Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2014).^{[ISBN missing][page needed]}
9. IOM 2011, p. 35.
10. A. Shapur Shahbazi, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, VII/3, pp. 297–312, available online at "'Deportations' – Encyclopaedia Iranica". (accessed on 30 December 2012).
11. Lemche, Niels Peter (2004). Historical dictionary of ancient Israel. Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-8108-4848-1.
12. Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (1990). The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 117. ISBN 0-8028-0966-9.
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14. Mosig-Walburg, Karin (2010). "Deportationen römischer Christen in das Sasanidenreich durch Shapur I. und ihre Folgen: eine Neubewertung". Klio. 92 (1): 117–156. doi:10.1524/klio.2010.0008. ISSN 0075-6334. S2CID 191495778.
15. Christensen, The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500, 1993. ^{[page needed]}
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26. Johnston, Hugh (1995). "Exclusion". The Voyage of the Komagata Maru: The Sikh's challenge to Canada's colour bar. Vancouver: UBC Press. p. 138. Retrieved 13 March 2022. The Canadian government tried to stop the Indian influx with a continuous passage order-in-council issued 8 Jan. 1908, but it was loosely drafted and successfully challenged in court
27. Gratton, Brian; Merchant, Emily (December 2013). "Immigration, Repatriation, and Deportation: The Mexican-Origin Population in the United States, 1920–1950" (PDF). Vol. 47, no. 4. The International migration review. pp. 944–975.
28. McKay, "The Federal Deportation Campaign in Texas: Mexican Deportation from the Lower Rio Grande Valley During the Great Depression", Borderlands Journal, Fall 1981; Balderrama and Rodriguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s, 1995; Valenciana, "Unconstitutional Deportation of Mexican Americans During the 1930s: A Family History and Oral History", Multicultural Education, Spring 2006.
29. See Albert G. Mata, "Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 by Juan Ramon García", Contemporary Sociology, 1:5 (September 1983), p. 574 ("the widespread concern and hysteria about 'wetback inundation'..."); , Defining America Through Immigration Policy, Temple University Press, 2004, p. 130. ISBN 1-59213-233-2 ("While Operation Wetback temporarily relieved national hysteria, criticism of the Bracero program mounted."); David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity, University of California Press, 1995, p. 168. ISBN 0-520-20219-8 ("The situation was further complicated by the government's active collusion in perpetuating the political powerlessness of ethnic Mexicans by condoning the use of Mexican labor while simultaneously whipping up anti-Mexican hysteria against wetbacks."); Ian F. Haney López, Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice, new ed., Belknap Press, 2004, p. 83. ISBN 0-674-01629-7 ("... Operation Wetback revived Depression-era mass deportations. Responding to public hysteria about the 'invasion' of the United States by 'illegal aliens', this campaign targeted large Mexican communities such as East Los Angeles."); Jaime R. Aguila, "Book Reviews: Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. By Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez", Journal of San Diego History, 52:3–4 (Summer–Fall 2006), p. 197. ("Anti-immigrant hysteria contributed to the implementation of Operation Wetback in the mid 1950s....")
30. García, Juan Ramon. Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1980. ISBN 0-313-21353-4
31. Hing, Bill Ong. Defining America Through Immigration Policy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-59213-232-4
32. Deportation to the Death Camps, Yad Vashem
33. Database of deportations during the Holocaust – The International Institute for Holocaust Research, Yad Vashem
34. "Holocaust Glossary". Scholastic.
35. Pohl, J. Otto (2000). "Stalin's genocide against the 'Repressed Peoples'". Journal of Genocide Research. 2 (2): 267–293. doi:10.1080/713677598. ISSN 1462-3528.
36. "UNHCR publication for CIS Conference (Displacement in the CIS) – Punished peoples: the mass deportations of the 1940s". UNHCR US. 1996-05-01. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
37. "A century of deportations. How Russia has been destroying nations". Ukraїner. 18 June 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
38. Polian, Polian (2004). Against Their Will. Hungary: Central European Press. ISBN 9639241687.
39. Werth, Nicholas (2008). "The Crimes of the Stalin Regime: Outline for an Inventory and Classification". In Stone, Dan (ed.). The Historiography of Genocide (repeated ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230297784. LCCN 2007048561.
40. Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005. New York: Indiana University Press. p. 114. ISBN 0-253-34656-8.
41. Henckaerts, Mass Expulsion in Modern International Law and Practice, 1995, p. 5; Forsythe and Lawson, Encyclopedia of Human Rights, 1996, pp. 53–54.
42. Raphael, Therese (20 April 2022). "Boris Johnson Won't Find Refuge in Rwanda". Bloomberg UK. Retrieved 12 May 2022.
43. FitzGerald, David Scott (2019). Refuge beyond Reach: How Rich Democracies Repel Asylum Seekers. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-087417-9.
44. Mahdavi, Pardis (2016-06-30). "Stateless and for Sale in the Gulf". Foreign Affairs. ISSN 0015-7120. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
45. "To silence dissidents, Gulf states are revoking their citizenship". The Economist. 26 November 2016.
46. Zetter, Roger, et al. "An assessment of the impact of asylum policies in Europe, 1990–2000." Home Office Online Report 17.03 (2003).
47. "Update on the human rights situation in Ukraine" (PDF). United Nations Human Rights. 2022. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
48. "Deportation of Ukrainian citizens from the territory of active military operations or from the temporarily occupied territory of Ukraine to the territory of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus" (PDF). 5:00 AM Coalition. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
49. ""We Had No Choice" "Filtration" and the Crime of Forcibly Transferring Ukrainian Civilians to Russia" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 2022-09-01. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
50. "Dominican Republic must end de facto racist migration policies". Amnesty International. 2 April 2024. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
51. "Mass deportation isn't just inhumane. It's ineffective". The Washington Post.
52. "Analysis: Deaths during forced deportation". 11 January 2013.
53. "4. From Exception to Excess: Detention and Deportations across the Mediterranean Space". The Deportation Regime. University of Leicester. 2020. pp. 147–165. doi:10.1515/9780822391340-007. hdl:2381/9344. ISBN 978-0-8223-9134-0. S2CID 159652908.

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Further reading

• Garrity, Meghan (2022). "Introducing the Government-Sponsored Mass Expulsion Dataset". Journal of Peace Research.

External links

• Media related to Deportation at Wikimedia Commons