In experimental and applied particle physics, nuclear physics, and nuclear engineering, a particle detector, also known as a radiation detector, is a device used to detect, track, and/or identify ionizing particles, such as those produced by nuclear decay, cosmic radiation, or reactions in a particle accelerator. Detectors can measure the particle energy and other attributes such as momentum, spin, charge, particle type, in addition to merely registering the presence of the particle.
Examples and types
Many of the detectors invented and used so far are ionization detectors (of which gaseous ionization detectors and semiconductor detectors are most typical) and scintillation detectors; but other, completely different principles have also been applied, like Čerenkov light and transition radiation.
Historical examples
- Bubble chamber
- Wilson cloud chamber (diffusion chamber)
- Photographic plate (Nuclear emulsion)
- Detectors for radiation protection
The following types of particle detector are widely used for radiation protection, and are commercially produced in large quantities for general use within the nuclear, medical, and environmental fields.
- Dosimeter
- Electroscope (when used as a portable dosimeter)
- Gaseous ionization detector
- Geiger counter
- Ionization chamber
- Proportional counter
- Scintillation counter
- Semiconductor detector
Commonly used detectors for particle and nuclear physics
- Gaseous ionization detector
- Ionization chamber
- Proportional counter
- Multiwire proportional chamber
- Drift chamber
- Time projection chamber
- Micropattern gaseous detector
- Geiger–Müller tube
- Spark chamber
- Solid-state detectors:
- Semiconductor detector and variants including CCDs
- Silicon Vertex Detector
- Solid-state nuclear track detector
- Cherenkov detector
- Ring-imaging Cherenkov detector (RICH)
- Scintillation counter and associated photomultiplier, photodiode, or avalanche photodiode
- Lucas cell
- Time-of-flight detector
- Transition radiation detector
- Semiconductor detector and variants including CCDs
- Calorimeter
- Microchannel plate detector
- Neutron detector
Modern detectors
Modern detectors in particle physics combine several of the above elements in layers much like an onion.
Research particle detectors
Detectors designed for modern accelerators are huge, both in size and in cost. The term counter is often used instead of detector when the detector counts the particles but does not resolve its energy or ionization. Particle detectors can also usually track ionizing radiation (high energy photons or even visible light). If their main purpose is radiation measurement, they are called radiation detectors, but as photons are also (massless) particles, the term particle detector is still correct.
At colliders
- At CERN
- At Fermilab
- for the Tevatron
- CDF
- D0
- Mu2e
- for the Tevatron
- At DESY
- for HERA
- H1
- HERA-B
- HERMES
- ZEUS
- for HERA
- At BNL
- for the RHIC
- PHENIX
- Phobos
- STAR
- for the RHIC
- At SLAC
- for the PeP-II
- BaBar
- for the SLC
- SLD
- for the PeP-II
- At Cornell
- for CESR
- CLEO
- CUSB
- for CESR
- At BINP
- for the VEPP-2M and VEPP-2000
- ND
- SND
- CMD
- for the VEPP-4
- KEDR
- for the VEPP-2M and VEPP-2000
- Others
- MECO from UC Irvine
Under construction
- For International Linear Collider (ILC)
- CALICE (Calorimeter for Linear Collider Experiment)
Without colliders
- Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array (AMANDA)
- Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS)
- Super-Kamiokande
- XENON
On spacecraft
- Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS)
- DAMPE (DArk Matter Particle Explorer)
- Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
- JEDI (Jupiter Energetic-particle Detector Instrument)
Theoretical Models of Particle Detectors
Beyond their experimental implementations, theoretical models of particle detectors are also of great importance to theoretical physics. These models consider localized non-relativistic quantum systems coupled to a quantum field. They receive the name of particle detectors because when the non-relativistic quantum system is measured in an excited state, one can claim to have detected a particle. The first instance of particle detector models in the literature dates from the 80's, where a particle in a box was introduced by W. G. Unruh in order to probe a quantum field around a black hole. Shortly after, Bryce DeWitt proposed a simplification of the model, giving rise to the model.
Beyond their applications to theoretical physics, particle detector models are related to experimental fields such as quantum optics, where atoms can be used as detectors for the quantum electromagnetic field via the light-matter interaction. From a conceptual side, particle detectors also allow one to formally define the concept of particles without relying on asymptotic states, or representations of a quantum field theory. As M. Scully puts it, from an operational viewpoint one can state that "a particle is what a particle detector detects", which in essence defines a particle as the detection of excitations of a quantum field.
See also
- Counting efficiency
- List of particles
- Tail-pulse generator
References
- Martín-Martínez, Eduardo; Montero, Miguel; del Rey, Marco (2013-03-25). "Wavepacket detection with the Unruh-DeWitt model". Physical Review D. 87 (6): 064038. arXiv:1207.3248. Bibcode:2013PhRvD..87f4038M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.87.064038. S2CID 19334396.
- Unruh, W. G. (1976-08-15). "Notes on black-hole evaporation". Physical Review D. 14 (4): 870–892. Bibcode:1976PhRvD..14..870U. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870.
- Unruh, William G.; Wald, Robert M. (1984-03-15). "What happens when an accelerating observer detects a Rindler particle". Physical Review D. 29 (6): 1047–1056. Bibcode:1984PhRvD..29.1047U. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.29.1047.
- Irvine, J M (May 1980). "General Relativity – An Einstein Centenary Survey". Physics Bulletin. 31 (4): 140. doi:10.1088/0031-9112/31/4/029. ISSN 0031-9112.
- Scully, Marlan O. (2009), Muga, Gonzalo; Ruschhaupt, Andreas; del Campo, Adolfo (eds.), "The Time-Dependent Schrödinger Equation Revisited: Quantum Optical and Classical Maxwell Routes to Schrödinger's Wave Equation", Time in Quantum Mechanics - Vol. 2, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 789, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 15–24, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03174-8_2, ISBN 978-3-642-03174-8, retrieved 2022-08-19
- Jones, R. Clark (1949). "A New Classification System for Radiation Detectors". Journal of the Optical Society of America. 39 (5): 327–341. Bibcode:1949JOSA...39..327J. doi:10.1364/JOSA.39.000327. PMID 18131432.
- Jones, R. Clark (1949). "Erratum: The Ultimate Sensitivity of Radiation Detectors". Journal of the Optical Society of America. 39 (5): 343. Bibcode:1949JOSA...39..343J. doi:10.1364/JOSA.39.000343.
- Jones, R. Clark (1949). "Factors of Merit for Radiation Detectors". Journal of the Optical Society of America. 39 (5): 344–356. Bibcode:1949JOSA...39..344J. doi:10.1364/JOSA.39.000344. PMID 18144695.
Further reading
- Filmstrips
- "Radiation detectors". H. M. Stone Productions, Schloat. Tarrytown, N.Y., Prentice-Hall Media, 1972.
- General Information
- Grupen, C. (June 28 – July 10, 1999). "Physics of Particle Detection". AIP Conference Proceedings, Instrumentation in Elementary Particle Physics, VIII. Vol. 536. Istanbul: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co. pp. 3–34. arXiv:physics/9906063. doi:10.1063/1.1361756.
In experimental and applied particle physics nuclear physics and nuclear engineering a particle detector also known as a radiation detector is a device used to detect track and or identify ionizing particles such as those produced by nuclear decay cosmic radiation or reactions in a particle accelerator Detectors can measure the particle energy and other attributes such as momentum spin charge particle type in addition to merely registering the presence of the particle Examples and typesSummary of particle detector types Many of the detectors invented and used so far are ionization detectors of which gaseous ionization detectors and semiconductor detectors are most typical and scintillation detectors but other completely different principles have also been applied like Cerenkov light and transition radiation Cloud chambers visualize particles by creating a supersaturated layer of vapor Particles passing through this region create cloud tracks similar to condensation trails of planesRecording of a bubble chamber at CERN Historical examples Bubble chamber Wilson cloud chamber diffusion chamber Photographic plate Nuclear emulsion Detectors for radiation protection The following types of particle detector are widely used for radiation protection and are commercially produced in large quantities for general use within the nuclear medical and environmental fields Dosimeter Electroscope when used as a portable dosimeter Gaseous ionization detector Geiger counter Ionization chamber Proportional counter Scintillation counter Semiconductor detector Commonly used detectors for particle and nuclear physics Gaseous ionization detector Ionization chamber Proportional counter Multiwire proportional chamber Drift chamber Time projection chamber Micropattern gaseous detector Geiger Muller tube Spark chamber Solid state detectors Semiconductor detector and variants including CCDs Silicon Vertex Detector Solid state nuclear track detector Cherenkov detector Ring imaging Cherenkov detector RICH Scintillation counter and associated photomultiplier photodiode or avalanche photodiode Lucas cell Time of flight detector Transition radiation detector Calorimeter Microchannel plate detector Neutron detectorModern detectorsModern detectors in particle physics combine several of the above elements in layers much like an onion Research particle detectorsDetectors designed for modern accelerators are huge both in size and in cost The term counter is often used instead of detector when the detector counts the particles but does not resolve its energy or ionization Particle detectors can also usually track ionizing radiation high energy photons or even visible light If their main purpose is radiation measurement they are called radiation detectors but as photons are also massless particles the term particle detector is still correct At colliders At CERN for the LHC CMS ATLAS ALICE LHCb for the LEP Aleph 1 Delphi 2 L3 Opal 3 for the SPS The COMPASS Experiment Gargamelle NA61 SHINE At Fermilab for the Tevatron CDF D0 Mu2e At DESY for HERA H1 HERA B HERMES ZEUS At BNL for the RHIC PHENIX Phobos STAR At SLAC for the PeP II BaBar for the SLC SLD At Cornell for CESR CLEO CUSB At BINP for the VEPP 2M and VEPP 2000 ND SND CMD for the VEPP 4 KEDR Others MECO from UC IrvineUnder construction For International Linear Collider ILC CALICE Calorimeter for Linear Collider Experiment Without colliders Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array AMANDA Cryogenic Dark Matter Search CDMS Super Kamiokande XENONOn spacecraftAlpha Magnetic Spectrometer AMS DAMPE DArk Matter Particle Explorer Fermi Gamma ray Space Telescope JEDI Jupiter Energetic particle Detector Instrument Theoretical Models of Particle DetectorsBeyond their experimental implementations theoretical models of particle detectors are also of great importance to theoretical physics These models consider localized non relativistic quantum systems coupled to a quantum field They receive the name of particle detectors because when the non relativistic quantum system is measured in an excited state one can claim to have detected a particle The first instance of particle detector models in the literature dates from the 80 s where a particle in a box was introduced by W G Unruh in order to probe a quantum field around a black hole Shortly after Bryce DeWitt proposed a simplification of the model giving rise to the model Beyond their applications to theoretical physics particle detector models are related to experimental fields such as quantum optics where atoms can be used as detectors for the quantum electromagnetic field via the light matter interaction From a conceptual side particle detectors also allow one to formally define the concept of particles without relying on asymptotic states or representations of a quantum field theory As M Scully puts it from an operational viewpoint one can state that a particle is what a particle detector detects which in essence defines a particle as the detection of excitations of a quantum field See alsoCounting efficiency List of particles Tail pulse generatorReferencesMartin Martinez Eduardo Montero Miguel del Rey Marco 2013 03 25 Wavepacket detection with the Unruh DeWitt model Physical Review D 87 6 064038 arXiv 1207 3248 Bibcode 2013PhRvD 87f4038M doi 10 1103 PhysRevD 87 064038 S2CID 19334396 Unruh W G 1976 08 15 Notes on black hole evaporation Physical Review D 14 4 870 892 Bibcode 1976PhRvD 14 870U doi 10 1103 PhysRevD 14 870 Unruh William G Wald Robert M 1984 03 15 What happens when an accelerating observer detects a Rindler particle Physical Review D 29 6 1047 1056 Bibcode 1984PhRvD 29 1047U doi 10 1103 PhysRevD 29 1047 Irvine J M May 1980 General Relativity An Einstein Centenary Survey Physics Bulletin 31 4 140 doi 10 1088 0031 9112 31 4 029 ISSN 0031 9112 Scully Marlan O 2009 Muga Gonzalo Ruschhaupt Andreas del Campo Adolfo eds The Time Dependent Schrodinger Equation Revisited Quantum Optical and Classical Maxwell Routes to Schrodinger s Wave Equation Time in Quantum Mechanics Vol 2 Lecture Notes in Physics vol 789 Berlin Heidelberg Springer pp 15 24 doi 10 1007 978 3 642 03174 8 2 ISBN 978 3 642 03174 8 retrieved 2022 08 19 Jones R Clark 1949 A New Classification System for Radiation Detectors Journal of the Optical Society of America 39 5 327 341 Bibcode 1949JOSA 39 327J doi 10 1364 JOSA 39 000327 PMID 18131432 Jones R Clark 1949 Erratum The Ultimate Sensitivity of Radiation Detectors Journal of the Optical Society of America 39 5 343 Bibcode 1949JOSA 39 343J doi 10 1364 JOSA 39 000343 Jones R Clark 1949 Factors of Merit for Radiation Detectors Journal of the Optical Society of America 39 5 344 356 Bibcode 1949JOSA 39 344J doi 10 1364 JOSA 39 000344 PMID 18144695 Further readingFilmstrips Radiation detectors H M Stone Productions Schloat Tarrytown N Y Prentice Hall Media 1972 General InformationGrupen C June 28 July 10 1999 Physics of Particle Detection AIP Conference Proceedings Instrumentation in Elementary Particle Physics VIII Vol 536 Istanbul Dordrecht D Reidel Publishing Co pp 3 34 arXiv physics 9906063 doi 10 1063 1 1361756
