Proto-Mayan is the hypothetical common ancestor of the 30 living Mayan languages, as well as the Classic Maya language documented in the Maya inscriptions. While there has been some controversy with Mayan subgrouping, there has been a general agreement that the following are the main five subgroups of the family: Huastecan, Yucatecan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Kanjobalan-Chujean, and Quichean-Mamean.
| Proto-Mayan | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Mayan languages |
| Region | Mesoamerica |
Phonology
The Proto-Mayan language is reconstructed (Campbell and Kaufman 1985) as having the following sounds:
Five vowels: a, e, i, o and u. Each of these occurring as short and long: aa, ee, ii, oo and uu,
| Type | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sound | plain | ejective | plain | ejective | plain | ejective | plain | ejective | plain | ejective | plain | |
| Stop | p [p] | bʼ/pʼ [ɓ]/[pʼ] | t [t] | tʼ [tʼ] | ty [tʲ] | tyʼ [tʲʼ] | k [k] | kʼ [kʼ] | q [q] | qʼ [qʼ] | ʼ [ʔ] | |
| Affricate | ts [tsʰ] | tsʼ [tsʼ] | ch [tʃʰ] | chʼ [tʃʼ] | ||||||||
| Fricative | s [s] | x [ʃ] | j [χ] | h [h] | ||||||||
| Nasal | m [m] | n [n] | nh [ŋ] | |||||||||
| Liquid | l [l] r [r] | |||||||||||
| Glide | y [j] | w [w] | ||||||||||
Sound rules
The following set of sound changes from proto-Mayan to the modern languages are used as the basis of the classification of the Mayan languages. Each sound change may be shared by a number of languages; a grey background indicates no change.
| Huastecan | Yucatecan | Cholan–Tzeltalan | Qʼanjobʼalan–Chujean | Kʼichean–Mamean | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chʼolan | Tzeltalan | Qʼanjobʼalan | Chujean | Kʼichean | Mamean | ||||
| Core Kʼicheʼ | Kaqchikel- Tzʼutujil | Mam | Ixil | ||||||
| *w > b | |||||||||
| *h > w/_o,u | |||||||||
| *q > k, *qʼ > kʼ | |||||||||
| *ŋ > h | *ŋ > n[dubious – discuss] | *ŋ > x | |||||||
| *ty > tʃ, *tyʼ > tʃʼ | *ty > ty/t, *tyʼ > tyʼ/tʼ | *ty > t, *tyʼ > tʼ | *ty > tʃ, *tyʼ > tʃʼ | *ty > tz, *tyʼ > tzʼ | |||||
| *e: > i, *o: > u | |||||||||
| *a: > ɨ | |||||||||
| *-t > -tʃ | *t > tʃ | ||||||||
| *-h > -j | *-h > -j | ||||||||
| CVʔVC > CVʔC | |||||||||
| *r > t | |||||||||
| *r > j | |||||||||
| *tʃ > tʂ | |||||||||
| *-ɓ > -ʔ/VCV_# | |||||||||
Developments
The palatalized plosives [tʲʼ] and [tʲ] are not carried down into any of the modern families.[dubious – discuss] Instead they are reflected differently in different branches allowing a reconstruction of these phonemes as palatalized plosives. In the western branch (Chujean–Qʼanjobʼalan and Cholan) they are reflected as [t] and [tʼ]. In Mamean they are reflected as [ts] and [tsʼ] and in Yukatek and Kʼichean as [tʃʰ] and [tʃʼ].
| Proto-Mayan | Qʼanjobʼal | Mam | Kʼicheʼ | English |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *tʲeːʔ | teʔ | tseʔ | tʃeːʔ | tree |
| *tʲaʔŋ | tan | tsaʔχ | tʃaːχ | ashes |
The Proto-Mayan liquid [r] is reflected as [j] in the western languages (Chujean–Qʼanjobʼalan and Cholan), Huastecan and Yukatek but as [tʃʰ] in Mamean and [r] in Kʼichean and Poqom.
| Proto-Mayan | Yukatek | Ixil | Kʼicheʼ | English |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *raʔʃ | jaʔʃ | tʃaʔʃ | raʃ | green |
| *kar | kaj | tʃaj | kar | fish |
Proto-Mayan velar nasal *[ŋ] is reflected as [x] in the eastern branches (Kʼichean–Mamean), as [n] in Qʼanjobʼalan, Cholan and Yukatekan, and only conserved as [ŋ] in Chuj and Poptí. In Huastecan *[ŋ] is reflected as [h].
| Proto-Mayan | Qʼanjobʼal | Ixil | Poptiʼ | English |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ŋeːh | ne | xeh | ŋeh | tail |
The changes of Proto-Mayan glottal fricative [h] are many and it has different reflexes according to position. In some positions it has added length to the preceding vowel in languages that preserve a length distinction. In other languages it has the reflexes [w], [j], [ʔ], [x] or a zero-reflex.
Only Kʼichean–Mamean and some Qʼanjobʼalan languages have retained Proto-Mayan uvular stops [q] and [qʼ] whereas all other branches have changed these into [k] and [kʼ] respectively.
In Mamean a chain shift took place changing *[r] into [t], *[t] into [tʃ], *[tʃ] into [tʂ] and *[ʃ] into [ʂ]. These retroflex affricates and fricatives later diffused into Qʼanjobʼalan.
In polysyllabic words Kaqchikel and Tzʼutujil have changed a final Proto-Mayan *[w] and *[ɓ] into [j] and *[ʔ] respectively.
Huastecan is the only branch to have changed Proto-Mayan *[w] into [b]. Wastek also is the only Mayan language to have a phonemic labialized velar phoneme [kʷ], but this is known to be a postcolonial development. Comparing colonial documents in Wastek to modern Wastek it can be seen that they were originally clusters of [k] and a rounded vowel followed by a glide. For example, the word for "vulture" which in modern Wastek is pronounced [kʷiːʃ] was written <cuyx> in colonial Wastek and pronounced [kuwiːʃ].
The Yucatecan languages have all shifted Proto-Mayan *[t] into [tʃ] in wordfinal position.
Several languages particularly Cholan and Yucatecan have changed short [a] into [ɨ].
All Cholan languages have changed long proto-Mayan vowels [eː] and [oː] into [i] and [u] respectively.
Vowel length distinction has been lost in Qʼanjobʼalan-Chujean (except for Mochoʼ and Akateko), Kaqchikel and Cholan. Some languages have reduced the vowel length distinction into a tense lax distinction that was later lost for most vowels, Kaqchikel however retains a centralized lax schwa-like vowel as a reflex of Proto-Mayan [a]. Two languages, Yukatek and Uspantek and one dialect of Tzotzil have introduced a tone distinction in vowels between high and low tones as reflexes of former vowel length and [h] and [ʔ].
References
- Campbell, L.; Kaufman, T. (1985). "Mayan Linguistics: Where Are We Now?". Annual Review of Anthropology. 14: 187–198. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.14.100185.001155.
- England (1994), p.35.
- adapted from cognate list in England (1994)
- England (1994), pp.30–31.
- England (1994), p.37.
- Campbell (1997), p.164.
- Campbell, Lyle, 1998, "Historical Linguistics", Thames & Hudson p.170
- England (1994), pp.110–111.
Sources
- England, Nora C., 1994, Autonomia de los Idiomas Mayas: Historia e identidad. (Ukutaʼmil Ramaqʼiil Utzijobʼaal ri Mayaʼ Amaaqʼ.) Cholsamaj. Guatemala.
- Handbook of Middle American Indians, 1967, 1969, R. Wauchope (series ed.). Vol 7 (ethnographic sketches of Mayan groups), Volume 5 (linguistic sketches and other useful materials). F 1434, H 3, LAC (ref).
- Lyle Campbell and Terrence Kaufman, Annual Review of Anthropology. 1985. "Mayan Linguistics: Where are We Now?"
External links
- The Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages – Spanish/Mayan site, the primary authority on Mayan Languages
- Yucatec – English Dictionary
- Bibliography of Maya related topics from the University of Texas Anthropology website
- The Mayan Languages- A Comparative Vocabulary contains more than 40,000 entries for 31 Mayan languages
- English Words and their Classic Maya Equivalents
- Ethnologue Mayan language family tree
Proto Mayan is the hypothetical common ancestor of the 30 living Mayan languages as well as the Classic Maya language documented in the Maya inscriptions While there has been some controversy with Mayan subgrouping there has been a general agreement that the following are the main five subgroups of the family Huastecan Yucatecan Cholan Tzeltalan Kanjobalan Chujean and Quichean Mamean Proto MayanReconstruction ofMayan languagesRegionMesoamericaGenealogy of Mayan languages PhonologyThe Proto Mayan language is reconstructed Campbell and Kaufman 1985 as having the following sounds Five vowels a e i o and u Each of these occurring as short and long aa ee ii oo and uu Type Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular GlottalSound plain ejective plain ejective plain ejective plain ejective plain ejective plainStop p p bʼ pʼ ɓ pʼ t t tʼ tʼ ty tʲ tyʼ tʲʼ k k kʼ kʼ q q qʼ qʼ ʼ ʔ Affricate ts tsʰ tsʼ tsʼ ch tʃʰ chʼ tʃʼ Fricative s s x ʃ j x h h Nasal m m n n nh ŋ Liquid l l r r Glide y j w w Sound rules The following set of sound changes from proto Mayan to the modern languages are used as the basis of the classification of the Mayan languages Each sound change may be shared by a number of languages a grey background indicates no change Overview of soundrules from Proto Mayan to modern Mayan language groups Huastecan Yucatecan Cholan Tzeltalan Qʼanjobʼalan Chujean Kʼichean MameanChʼolan Tzeltalan Qʼanjobʼalan Chujean Kʼichean MameanCore Kʼicheʼ Kaqchikel Tzʼutujil Mam Ixil w gt b h gt w o u q gt k qʼ gt kʼ ŋ gt h ŋ gt n dubious discuss ŋ gt x ty gt tʃ tyʼ gt tʃʼ ty gt ty t tyʼ gt tyʼ tʼ ty gt t tyʼ gt tʼ ty gt tʃ tyʼ gt tʃʼ ty gt tz tyʼ gt tzʼ e gt i o gt u a gt ɨ t gt tʃ t gt tʃ h gt j h gt jCVʔVC gt CVʔC r gt t r gt j tʃ gt tʂ ɓ gt ʔ VCV Developments The palatalized plosives tʲʼ and tʲ are not carried down into any of the modern families dubious discuss Instead they are reflected differently in different branches allowing a reconstruction of these phonemes as palatalized plosives In the western branch Chujean Qʼanjobʼalan and Cholan they are reflected as t and tʼ In Mamean they are reflected as ts and tsʼ and in Yukatek and Kʼichean as tʃʰ and tʃʼ reflexes of Proto Mayan tʲʼ and tʲ Proto Mayan Qʼanjobʼal Mam Kʼicheʼ English tʲeːʔ teʔ tseʔ tʃeːʔ tree tʲaʔŋ tan tsaʔx tʃaːx ashes The Proto Mayan liquid r is reflected as j in the western languages Chujean Qʼanjobʼalan and Cholan Huastecan and Yukatek but as tʃʰ in Mamean and r in Kʼichean and Poqom reflexes of Proto Mayan r Proto Mayan Yukatek Ixil Kʼicheʼ English raʔʃ jaʔʃ tʃaʔʃ raʃ green kar kaj tʃaj kar fish Proto Mayan velar nasal ŋ is reflected as x in the eastern branches Kʼichean Mamean as n in Qʼanjobʼalan Cholan and Yukatekan and only conserved as ŋ in Chuj and Popti In Huastecan ŋ is reflected as h reflexes of Proto Mayan ŋ Proto Mayan Qʼanjobʼal Ixil Poptiʼ English ŋeːh ne xeh ŋeh tail The changes of Proto Mayan glottal fricative h are many and it has different reflexes according to position In some positions it has added length to the preceding vowel in languages that preserve a length distinction In other languages it has the reflexes w j ʔ x or a zero reflex Only Kʼichean Mamean and some Qʼanjobʼalan languages have retained Proto Mayan uvular stops q and qʼ whereas all other branches have changed these into k and kʼ respectively In Mamean a chain shift took place changing r into t t into tʃ tʃ into tʂ and ʃ into ʂ These retroflex affricates and fricatives later diffused into Qʼanjobʼalan In polysyllabic words Kaqchikel and Tzʼutujil have changed a final Proto Mayan w and ɓ into j and ʔ respectively Huastecan is the only branch to have changed Proto Mayan w into b Wastek also is the only Mayan language to have a phonemic labialized velar phoneme kʷ but this is known to be a postcolonial development Comparing colonial documents in Wastek to modern Wastek it can be seen that they were originally clusters of k and a rounded vowel followed by a glide For example the word for vulture which in modern Wastek is pronounced kʷiːʃ was written lt cuyx gt in colonial Wastek and pronounced kuwiːʃ The Yucatecan languages have all shifted Proto Mayan t into tʃ in wordfinal position Several languages particularly Cholan and Yucatecan have changed short a into ɨ All Cholan languages have changed long proto Mayan vowels eː and oː into i and u respectively Vowel length distinction has been lost in Qʼanjobʼalan Chujean except for Mochoʼ and Akateko Kaqchikel and Cholan Some languages have reduced the vowel length distinction into a tense lax distinction that was later lost for most vowels Kaqchikel however retains a centralized lax schwa like vowel as a reflex of Proto Mayan a Two languages Yukatek and Uspantek and one dialect of Tzotzil have introduced a tone distinction in vowels between high and low tones as reflexes of former vowel length and h and ʔ ReferencesCampbell L Kaufman T 1985 Mayan Linguistics Where Are We Now Annual Review of Anthropology 14 187 198 doi 10 1146 annurev an 14 100185 001155 England 1994 p 35 adapted from cognate list in England 1994 England 1994 pp 30 31 England 1994 p 37 Campbell 1997 p 164 Campbell Lyle 1998 Historical Linguistics Thames amp Hudson p 170 England 1994 pp 110 111 SourcesEngland Nora C 1994 Autonomia de los Idiomas Mayas Historia e identidad Ukutaʼmil Ramaqʼiil Utzijobʼaal ri Mayaʼ Amaaqʼ Cholsamaj Guatemala Handbook of Middle American Indians 1967 1969 R Wauchope series ed Vol 7 ethnographic sketches of Mayan groups Volume 5 linguistic sketches and other useful materials F 1434 H 3 LAC ref Lyle Campbell and Terrence Kaufman Annual Review of Anthropology 1985 Mayan Linguistics Where are We Now External linksWiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix Proto Mayan reconstructions Wiktionary has a Swadesh list at Appendix Proto Mayan Swadesh list The Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages Spanish Mayan site the primary authority on Mayan Languages Yucatec English Dictionary Bibliography of Maya related topics from the University of Texas Anthropology website The Mayan Languages A Comparative Vocabulary contains more than 40 000 entries for 31 Mayan languages English Words and their Classic Maya Equivalents Ethnologue Mayan language family tree
