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In linguistics, a pro-form is a type of function word or expression (linguistics) that stands in for (expresses the same content as) another word, phrase, clause or sentence where the meaning is recoverable from the context. They are used either to avoid repetitive expressions or in quantification (limiting the variables of a proposition).
Pro-forms are divided into several categories, according to which part of speech they substitute:
- A pronoun substitutes a noun or a noun phrase, with or without a determiner: it, this.
- A prop-word: one, as in "the blue one"
- A pro-adjective substitutes an adjective or a phrase that functions as an adjective: so as in "It is less so than we had expected."
- A pro-adverb substitutes an adverb or a phrase that functions as an adverb: how or this way.
- A pro-verb substitutes a verb or a verb phrase: do, as in: "I will go to the party if you do".
- A pro-sentence substitutes an entire sentence or subsentence: Yes, or that as in "That is true".
An interrogative pro-form is a pro-form that denotes the (unknown) item in question and may itself fall into any of the above categories.
The rules governing allowable syntactic relations between certain pro-forms (notably personal and reflexive/reciprocal pronouns) and their antecedents have been studied in what is called binding theory.
Table of correlatives
Some 19th-century grammars of Latin, such as Raphael Kühner's 1844 grammar, organized non-personal pronouns (interrogative, demonstrative, indefinite/quantifier, relative) in a table of "correlative" pronouns due to their similarities in morphological derivation and their syntactic relationships (as correlative pairs) in that language. Later that century, L. L. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, made use of the concept to systematically create the pro-forms and determiners of Esperanto in a regular table of correlatives. The table of correlatives for English follows.
| interrogative | demonstrative | quantifier | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| proximal | medial | distal | assertive existential | elective/dubitative existential | universal | negatory | positive alternative | |||
| determiner | which what | this (sg.) these (pl.) | that (sg.) those (pl.) | yon yonder | some | any whichever whichsoever | every each all | no | another | |
| pronoun | human | who whom (obj.) | this (one) (sg.) these (ones) (pl.) | that (one) (sg.) those (ones) (pl.) | yon yonder | someone somebody | anyone anybody whoever whomever (obj.) whosoever whomsoever (obj.) | everyone everybody all | no one nobody | another someone else somebody else |
| nonhuman | what | this (one) (sg.) these (ones) (pl.) | that (one) (sg.) those (ones) (pl.) | yon yonder | something | anything whatever whatsoever | everything all | nothing | something else else other | |
| out of two (dual) | which | this one (sg.) these (ones) (pl.) | that one (sg.) those (ones) (pl.) | yon yonder | one | either whichever whichsoever | both | neither | other | |
| out of many (plural) | some (pl.) one (sg.) | any whichever whichsoever | each all | none | another | |||||
| pro-adverb | location | where | here | there | yonder | somewhere | anywhere wherever wheresoever | everywhere | nowhere | elsewhere |
| source | whence | hence | thence | somewhence | anywhence whencever whencesoever | everywhence | nowhence | elsewhence | ||
| goal | whither | hither | thither | somewhither | anywhither whitherever whithersoever | everywhither | nowhither | elsewhither | ||
| time | when | now | then | sometime somewhen | anytime anywhen whenever whensoever | ever always everywhen | never nowhen | elsewhen another time | ||
| manner | how whereby | thus hereby | thereby | somehow | anyhow however howsoever | everyway everywise | no way nowise | otherwise elsewise | ||
| reason | why wherefore | herefore | therefore | somewhy for some reason | whyever whysoever | |||||
Some languages may have more categories. See demonstrative.
Note that some categories are regular and some are not. They may be regular or irregular also depending on languages. The following chart shows comparison between English, French (irregular) and Japanese (regular):
| interrogative | quantifier | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| existential | negative | ||
| human | who qui dare | someone quelqu'un dareka | no one (neg. +) personne daremo + neg. |
| nonhuman | what que nani | something quelque chose nanika | nothing rien nanimo + neg. |
| location | where où doko | somewhere quelque part dokoka | nowhere nulle part dokomo + neg. |
(Note that "daremo", "nanimo" and "dokomo" are universal quantifiers with positive verbs.)
Some languages do not distinguish interrogative and indefinite pro-forms. In Mandarin, "Shéi yǒu wèntí?" means either "Who has a question?" or "Does anyone have a question?", depending on context.
See also
- Anaphora (linguistics) – Use of an expression whose interpretation depends on context
- Deixis – Words requiring context to understand their meaning
- Pro-drop language – Language in which certain pronouns may sometimes be omitted
- Referent – Person or thing to which a linguistic expression or other symbol refers
References
- Crystal, David (1985). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (2nd ed.). Basil Blackwell.
- Rödl, Sebastian (2012). Categories of the Temporal. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 22–25. ISBN 978-0-674-04775-4.
- Kühner, Raphael (1844). Elementargrammatik der lateinischen Sprache mit eingereihten lateinischen und deutschen Übersetzungsaufgaben und einer Sammlung lateinischer Lesestücke nebst den dazu gehörigen Wörterverzeichnissen. p. 35. Retrieved 2022-12-02.
External links
The dictionary definition of pro-form at Wiktionary
- SIL Glossary of Linguistic Terms: Pro-Adverb
This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Pro form news newspapers books scholar JSTOR December 2009 Learn how and when to remove this message In linguistics a pro form is a type of function word or expression linguistics that stands in for expresses the same content as another word phrase clause or sentence where the meaning is recoverable from the context They are used either to avoid repetitive expressions or in quantification limiting the variables of a proposition Pro forms are divided into several categories according to which part of speech they substitute A pronoun substitutes a noun or a noun phrase with or without a determiner it this A prop word one as in the blue one A pro adjective substitutes an adjective or a phrase that functions as an adjective so as in It is less so than we had expected A pro adverb substitutes an adverb or a phrase that functions as an adverb how or this way A pro verb substitutes a verb or a verb phrase do as in I will go to the party if you do A pro sentence substitutes an entire sentence or subsentence Yes or that as in That is true An interrogative pro form is a pro form that denotes the unknown item in question and may itself fall into any of the above categories The rules governing allowable syntactic relations between certain pro forms notably personal and reflexive reciprocal pronouns and their antecedents have been studied in what is called binding theory Table of correlativesSome 19th century grammars of Latin such as Raphael Kuhner s 1844 grammar organized non personal pronouns interrogative demonstrative indefinite quantifier relative in a table of correlative pronouns due to their similarities in morphological derivation and their syntactic relationships as correlative pairs in that language Later that century L L Zamenhof the inventor of Esperanto made use of the concept to systematically create the pro forms and determiners of Esperanto in a regular table of correlatives The table of correlatives for English follows Table of correlatives interrogative demonstrative quantifierproximal medial distal assertive existential elective dubitative existential universal negatory positive alternativedeterminer which what this sg these pl that sg those pl yon yonder some any whichever whichsoever every each all no anotherpronoun human who whom obj this one sg these ones pl that one sg those ones pl yon yonder someone somebody anyone anybody whoever whomever obj whosoever whomsoever obj everyone everybody all no one nobody another someone else somebody elsenonhuman what this one sg these ones pl that one sg those ones pl yon yonder something anything whatever whatsoever everything all nothing something else else otherout of two dual which this one sg these ones pl that one sg those ones pl yon yonder one either whichever whichsoever both neither otherout of many plural some pl one sg any whichever whichsoever each all none anotherpro adverb location where here there yonder somewhere anywhere wherever wheresoever everywhere nowhere elsewheresource whence hence thence somewhence anywhence whencever whencesoever everywhence nowhence elsewhencegoal whither hither thither somewhither anywhither whitherever whithersoever everywhither nowhither elsewhithertime when now then sometime somewhen anytime anywhen whenever whensoever ever always everywhen never nowhen elsewhen another timemanner how whereby thus hereby thereby somehow anyhow however howsoever everyway everywise no way nowise otherwise elsewisereason why wherefore herefore therefore somewhy for some reason whyever whysoever Some languages may have more categories See demonstrative Note that some categories are regular and some are not They may be regular or irregular also depending on languages The following chart shows comparison between English French irregular and Japanese regular interrogative quantifierexistential negativehuman who qui dare someone quelqu un dareka no one neg personne daremo neg nonhuman what que nani something quelque chose nanika nothing rien nanimo neg location where ou doko somewhere quelque part dokoka nowhere nulle part dokomo neg Note that daremo nanimo and dokomo are universal quantifiers with positive verbs Some languages do not distinguish interrogative and indefinite pro forms In Mandarin Shei yǒu wenti means either Who has a question or Does anyone have a question depending on context See alsoAnaphora linguistics Use of an expression whose interpretation depends on context Deixis Words requiring context to understand their meaning Pro drop language Language in which certain pronouns may sometimes be omitted Referent Person or thing to which a linguistic expression or other symbol refersReferencesCrystal David 1985 A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics 2nd ed Basil Blackwell Rodl Sebastian 2012 Categories of the Temporal Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press pp 22 25 ISBN 978 0 674 04775 4 Kuhner Raphael 1844 Elementargrammatik der lateinischen Sprache mit eingereihten lateinischen und deutschen Ubersetzungsaufgaben und einer Sammlung lateinischer Lesestucke nebst den dazu gehorigen Worterverzeichnissen p 35 Retrieved 2022 12 02 External linksThe dictionary definition of pro form at Wiktionary SIL Glossary of Linguistic Terms Pro Adverb
