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The rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse) are a broad traditional classification of the major kinds of formal and academic writing (including speech-writing) by their rhetorical (persuasive) purpose: narration, description, exposition, and argumentation. First attempted[clarification needed] by Samuel P. Newman in A Practical System of Rhetoric in 1827, the modes of discourse have long influenced US writing instruction and particularly the design of mass-market writing assessments, despite critiques of the explanatory power of these classifications for non-school writing.
Definitions
Different definitions of mode apply to different types of writing.
Chris Baldick defines mode as an unspecific critical term usually designating a broad but identifiable kind of literary method, mood, or manner that is not tied exclusively to a particular form or genre. Examples are the satiric mode, the ironic, the comic, the pastoral, and the didactic.
Frederick Crews uses the term to mean a type of essay and categorizes essays as falling into four types, corresponding to four basic functions of prose: narration, or telling; description, or picturing; exposition, or explaining; and argument, or convincing. This is probably the most commonly accepted definition.
Susan Anker distinguishes between nine different modes of essay writing: narration, or writing that tells stories; illustration, or writing that gives examples; description, or writing that creates pictures in words; process analysis, or writing that explains how things happen; classification, or writing that sorts things into groups; definition, or writing that tells what something means; comparison and contrast, or writing that shows similarities and differences; cause and effect, or writing that explains reasons or results; and argument, or writing that persuades.
Each fiction-writing mode has its own purposes and conventions. Literary agent and author Evan Marshall identifies five different fiction-writing modes: action, summary, dialogue, feelings/thoughts, and background. Author and writing-instructor Jessica Page Morrell lists six delivery modes for fiction-writing: action, exposition, description, dialogue, summary, and transition. Author Peter Selgin refers to methods, including these six: action, dialogue, thoughts, summary, scene, and description.
Narration
The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing (see below), but also exposition. Narration is an especially useful tool for sequencing or putting details and information into some kind of logical order, traditionally chronological. Working with narration helps us see clear sequences separate from other modes.
A narrative essay recounts something that has happened. That something can be as small as a minor personal experience or as large as a war, and the narrator's tone can be either intimate and casual or neutrally objective and solemn. Inevitably, a good part of narration is taken up with describing. But a narrative essay differs from a descriptive one in its emphasis on time and sequence. The essayist turns storyteller, establishing when and in what order a series of related events occurred.
Exactly the same guidelines that hold for a descriptive or narrative essay can be used for the descriptive or narrative paragraph. That is, such a paragraph should be vivid, precise, and climactic, so that the details add up to something more than random observations.
Examples of narration include:
- Anecdote
- Autobiography
- Biography
- Novel
- Oral history
- Short story
- Travel literature
Description
The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that which is being described. Descriptive writing can be found in the other rhetorical modes.
A descriptive essay aims to make vivid a place, an object, a character, or a group. It acts as an imaginative guide to stimulate the thoughts of the reader in the form of allowing the mind to personally interact with what the writer has molded through literary enhancement of thoughtful impressions. The writer tries, not simply to convey facts about the object, but to give readers a direct impression of that object, as if they were standing in its presence. The descriptive writer's task is one of translation: he wants to find words to capture the way his five senses have registered the item, so a reader of those words will have a mental picture of it.
Essays whose governing intent is descriptive or narrative are relatively uncommon in college writing. Exposition and argument tend to prevail.
Exactly the same guidelines that hold for a descriptive or narrative essay can be used for the descriptive or narrative paragraph. That is, such a paragraph should be vivid, precise, and climactic, so that the details add up to something more than random observations.
Examples include:
- Journal writing
- Poetry
Exposition
Expository writing is a type of writing where the purpose is to explain or inform the audience about a topic. It is considered one of the four most common rhetorical modes.
The purpose of expository writing is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. In narrative contexts (such as history and fiction), exposition provides background information to teach or entertain. In other nonfiction contexts (such as technical communication), the purpose is to teach and inform.
The four basic elements of expository writing are the subject being examined; the thesis, or statement of the point the author is trying to prove; the argument, or backing, for the thesis, which consists of data and facts to serve as proof for the thesis; and the conclusion, or restatement of the proved thesis. There are two types of subject, according to Aristotle: thesis, or general question such as, "Ought all people to be kind to one another?" and hypothesis, or specific question: "Ought Elmer to be kind to his enemy Elmo?" One may be aided in the proper formation of a thesis by asking the questions an sit, "Does it exist?"; quid sit, "What is it?"; and quale sit, "What kind is it?"
Examples include:
- Business
- Business letters
- Reports
- Press releases
- Journalism
- How-to essays, such as recipes and other instructions
- News article
- Personal
- Personal letters
- Wills
- Academic and technical communication
- Scientific writing
- Scientific reports
- Scientific journal articles
- Academic writing
- Term papers
- Textbooks
- General reference works
- Technical writing
- User guides
- Technical standards
- Scientific writing
An expository paragraph presents facts, gives directions, defines terms, and so on. It should clearly inform readers about a specific subject. An expository essay is one whose chief aim is to present information or to explain something. To expound is to set forth in detail, so a reader will learn some facts about a given subject. In exposition, as in other rhetorical modes, details must be selected and ordered according to the writer's sense of their importance and interest. Although the expository writer isn't primarily taking a stand on an issue, they can't—and shouldn't try to—keep their opinions completely hidden. To expound is to set forth in detail, so that a reader will learn some facts about a given subject. However, no essay is merely a set of facts. Behind all the details lies an attitude, a point of view. There is no interesting way of expounding certain subjects without at least implying a position.
Argumentation
An argument is a claim made to support or encourage an audience towards believing in a certain idea. In ordinary life, it also refers to a discussion between people representing two (or more) disagreeing sides of an issue. It is often conducted orally, and a formal oral argument between two sides is a debate.
The purpose of argumentation (also called persuasive writing) is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument to thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing/persuasion is a type of argumentation with the additional aim to urge the reader to take some form of action.
Examples include:
- Advertising copy
- Critical reviews
- Critiques
- Editorials
- Job application letter
- Job evaluation
- Letter of recommendation
- Letters to the editor
- Résumés
When an essay writer's position is not implied but openly and centrally maintained, the essay is argumentative. An argument is simply a reasoned attempt to have one's opinions accepted. The ideal is to present supporting evidence which points so plainly to the correctness of one's stand that one can afford to be civil and even generous toward those who believe otherwise.
Another form of persuasive rhetoric is the use of humor or satire in order to make a point about some aspect of life or society. Perhaps the most famous example is Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal".
See also
- Fiction writing
- Literature
Notes
- Connors (1981)
- Baldick (2004)
- Crews (1977, p. 13)
- Anker (2004, pp. 97–246)
- Marshall (1998, pp. 143–165)
- Morrell (2006, p. 127)
- Selgin (2007, p. 38)
- Crews (1977, p. 14)
- Crews (1977, p. 173)
- Crews (1977, p. 13)
- Crews (1977, p. 14)
- Crews (1977, p. 173)
- Ball, Arnetha F. "Expository Writing". Stanford University.
- Nordquist, Richard. "Expository Writing". About.com.
- Turco (1999, p. 115)
- Rozakis (2003, p. 271)
- Sebranek, Kemper & Meyer (2006, p. 97)
- Crews (1977, pp. 14–15)
- Crews (1977, pp. 14–15)
- Turco (1999, p. 121)
- Crews (1977, pp. 15–16)
References
- Anker, Susan (2004), Real Writing with Readings: Paragraphs and Essays for College, Work, and Everyday Life (3rd ed.), Boston: Bedford Books, ISBN 0-312-40521-9
- Baldick, Chris (2004), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-860883-7
- Connors, Robert (1981). "The Rise and Fall of the Modes of Discourse". College Composition and Communication. 32 (4): 444–455. doi:10.2307/356607. JSTOR 356607.
- Crews, Frederick (1977), The Random House Handbook (2nd ed.), New York: Random House, ISBN 0-394-31211-2
- Marshall, E (1998), The Marshall Plan for Novel Writing, Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books, pp. 143–165, ISBN 978-1-58297-062-2
- Morrell, JP (2006), Between the Lines: Master the Subtle Elements of Fiction Writing, Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books, p. 127, ISBN 978-1-58297-393-7
- Rozakis, Laurie (2003), The Complete Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Style (2nd ed.), Indianapolis: Alpha, p. 271, ISBN 978-1592571154
- Sebranek, Patrick; Kemper, Dave; Meyer, Verne (2006), Writers Inc.: A Student Handbook for Writing and Learning, Wilmington: Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN 978-0-669-52994-4
- Selgin, P (2007), By Cunning & Craft: Sound Advice and Practical Wisdom for fiction writers, Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books, p. 38, ISBN 978-1-58297-491-0
- Turco, Lewis (1999), The Book of Literary Terms: The Genres of Fiction, Drama, Nonfiction, Literary Criticism, and Scholarship, Hanover: University Press of New England, ISBN 0-87451-954-3
External links
- The Expository Essay
- What is Expository Writing?
The rhetorical modes also known as modes of discourse are a broad traditional classification of the major kinds of formal and academic writing including speech writing by their rhetorical persuasive purpose narration description exposition and argumentation First attempted clarification needed by Samuel P Newman in A Practical System of Rhetoric in 1827 the modes of discourse have long influenced US writing instruction and particularly the design of mass market writing assessments despite critiques of the explanatory power of these classifications for non school writing DefinitionsDifferent definitions of mode apply to different types of writing Chris Baldick defines mode as an unspecific critical term usually designating a broad but identifiable kind of literary method mood or manner that is not tied exclusively to a particular form or genre Examples are the satiric mode the ironic the comic the pastoral and the didactic Frederick Crews uses the term to mean a type of essay and categorizes essays as falling into four types corresponding to four basic functions of prose narration or telling description or picturing exposition or explaining and argument or convincing This is probably the most commonly accepted definition Susan Anker distinguishes between nine different modes of essay writing narration or writing that tells stories illustration or writing that gives examples description or writing that creates pictures in words process analysis or writing that explains how things happen classification or writing that sorts things into groups definition or writing that tells what something means comparison and contrast or writing that shows similarities and differences cause and effect or writing that explains reasons or results and argument or writing that persuades Each fiction writing mode has its own purposes and conventions Literary agent and author Evan Marshall identifies five different fiction writing modes action summary dialogue feelings thoughts and background Author and writing instructor Jessica Page Morrell lists six delivery modes for fiction writing action exposition description dialogue summary and transition Author Peter Selgin refers to methods including these six action dialogue thoughts summary scene and description NarrationThe purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing see below but also exposition Narration is an especially useful tool for sequencing or putting details and information into some kind of logical order traditionally chronological Working with narration helps us see clear sequences separate from other modes A narrative essay recounts something that has happened That something can be as small as a minor personal experience or as large as a war and the narrator s tone can be either intimate and casual or neutrally objective and solemn Inevitably a good part of narration is taken up with describing But a narrative essay differs from a descriptive one in its emphasis on time and sequence The essayist turns storyteller establishing when and in what order a series of related events occurred Exactly the same guidelines that hold for a descriptive or narrative essay can be used for the descriptive or narrative paragraph That is such a paragraph should be vivid precise and climactic so that the details add up to something more than random observations Examples of narration include Anecdote Autobiography Biography Novel Oral history Short story Travel literatureDescriptionThe purpose of description is to re create invent or visually present a person place event or action so that the reader can picture that which is being described Descriptive writing can be found in the other rhetorical modes A descriptive essay aims to make vivid a place an object a character or a group It acts as an imaginative guide to stimulate the thoughts of the reader in the form of allowing the mind to personally interact with what the writer has molded through literary enhancement of thoughtful impressions The writer tries not simply to convey facts about the object but to give readers a direct impression of that object as if they were standing in its presence The descriptive writer s task is one of translation he wants to find words to capture the way his five senses have registered the item so a reader of those words will have a mental picture of it Essays whose governing intent is descriptive or narrative are relatively uncommon in college writing Exposition and argument tend to prevail Exactly the same guidelines that hold for a descriptive or narrative essay can be used for the descriptive or narrative paragraph That is such a paragraph should be vivid precise and climactic so that the details add up to something more than random observations Examples include Journal writing PoetryExpositionExpository writing is a type of writing where the purpose is to explain or inform the audience about a topic It is considered one of the four most common rhetorical modes The purpose of expository writing is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea relevant evidence and appropriate discussion In narrative contexts such as history and fiction exposition provides background information to teach or entertain In other nonfiction contexts such as technical communication the purpose is to teach and inform The four basic elements of expository writing are the subject being examined the thesis or statement of the point the author is trying to prove the argument or backing for the thesis which consists of data and facts to serve as proof for the thesis and the conclusion or restatement of the proved thesis There are two types of subject according to Aristotle thesis or general question such as Ought all people to be kind to one another and hypothesis or specific question Ought Elmer to be kind to his enemy Elmo One may be aided in the proper formation of a thesis by asking the questions an sit Does it exist quid sit What is it and quale sit What kind is it Examples include Business Business letters Reports Press releases Journalism How to essays such as recipes and other instructions News article Personal Personal letters Wills Academic and technical communication Scientific writing Scientific reports Scientific journal articles Academic writing Term papers Textbooks General reference works Encyclopedia articles Technical writing User guides Technical standards An expository paragraph presents facts gives directions defines terms and so on It should clearly inform readers about a specific subject An expository essay is one whose chief aim is to present information or to explain something To expound is to set forth in detail so a reader will learn some facts about a given subject In exposition as in other rhetorical modes details must be selected and ordered according to the writer s sense of their importance and interest Although the expository writer isn t primarily taking a stand on an issue they can t and shouldn t try to keep their opinions completely hidden To expound is to set forth in detail so that a reader will learn some facts about a given subject However no essay is merely a set of facts Behind all the details lies an attitude a point of view There is no interesting way of expounding certain subjects without at least implying a position ArgumentationAn argument is a claim made to support or encourage an audience towards believing in a certain idea In ordinary life it also refers to a discussion between people representing two or more disagreeing sides of an issue It is often conducted orally and a formal oral argument between two sides is a debate The purpose of argumentation also called persuasive writing is to prove the validity of an idea or point of view by presenting sound reasoning discussion and argument to thoroughly convince the reader Persuasive writing persuasion is a type of argumentation with the additional aim to urge the reader to take some form of action Examples include Advertising copy Critical reviews Critiques Editorials Job application letter Job evaluation Letter of recommendation Letters to the editor Resumes When an essay writer s position is not implied but openly and centrally maintained the essay is argumentative An argument is simply a reasoned attempt to have one s opinions accepted The ideal is to present supporting evidence which points so plainly to the correctness of one s stand that one can afford to be civil and even generous toward those who believe otherwise Another form of persuasive rhetoric is the use of humor or satire in order to make a point about some aspect of life or society Perhaps the most famous example is Jonathan Swift s A Modest Proposal See alsoFiction writing LiteratureNotesConnors 1981 Baldick 2004 Crews 1977 p 13 Anker 2004 pp 97 246 Marshall 1998 pp 143 165 Morrell 2006 p 127 Selgin 2007 p 38 Crews 1977 p 14 Crews 1977 p 173 Crews 1977 p 13 Crews 1977 p 14 Crews 1977 p 173 Ball Arnetha F Expository Writing Stanford University Nordquist Richard Expository Writing About com Turco 1999 p 115 Rozakis 2003 p 271 Sebranek Kemper amp Meyer 2006 p 97 Crews 1977 pp 14 15 Crews 1977 pp 14 15 Turco 1999 p 121 Crews 1977 pp 15 16 ReferencesAnker Susan 2004 Real Writing with Readings Paragraphs and Essays for College Work and Everyday Life 3rd ed Boston Bedford Books ISBN 0 312 40521 9 Baldick Chris 2004 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 860883 7 Connors Robert 1981 The Rise and Fall of the Modes of Discourse College Composition and Communication 32 4 444 455 doi 10 2307 356607 JSTOR 356607 Crews Frederick 1977 The Random House Handbook 2nd ed New York Random House ISBN 0 394 31211 2 Marshall E 1998 The Marshall Plan for Novel Writing Cincinnati OH Writer s Digest Books pp 143 165 ISBN 978 1 58297 062 2 Morrell JP 2006 Between the Lines Master the Subtle Elements of Fiction Writing Cincinnati OH Writer s Digest Books p 127 ISBN 978 1 58297 393 7 Rozakis Laurie 2003 The Complete Idiot s Guide to Grammar and Style 2nd ed Indianapolis Alpha p 271 ISBN 978 1592571154 Sebranek Patrick Kemper Dave Meyer Verne 2006 Writers Inc A Student Handbook for Writing and Learning Wilmington Houghton Mifflin Company ISBN 978 0 669 52994 4 Selgin P 2007 By Cunning amp Craft Sound Advice and Practical Wisdom for fiction writers Cincinnati OH Writer s Digest Books p 38 ISBN 978 1 58297 491 0 Turco Lewis 1999 The Book of Literary Terms The Genres of Fiction Drama Nonfiction Literary Criticism and Scholarship Hanover University Press of New England ISBN 0 87451 954 3External linksThe Expository Essay What is Expository Writing